Flashcards
Respiratory System
Flashcards do conjunto (95)
- 1Four processes of respirationRespiratory system
Pulmonary respiration: breathing
External respiration: gas exchange between blood and lungs
Circulatory system
Transport
Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissues - 2Function of nose (nares) and paranasal sinusesProvides airway, warms, moistens, filters and cleans air, olfactory sensors and resonating chamber for speech
- 3Nasal cavity featuresNasal septum: ethmoid and vomer bone
Posterior nasal apertures - 4Make up of respiratory mucosaPseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium, contain lysozymes and defensins
- 5Function of respiratory mucosaStop harmful substances entering airway, cilia push mucosa posteriorly to the back of the throat, inspired air is warmed by capillary plexus, sensory nerve endings trigger sneezing
- 6Two division of lower respiratory systemConducting zone: transports, cleans, humidifies and warms air
Respiratory zone: site of gas exchange consisting of microscopic structures such as respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli - 7Larynx functions1. Provides patent airway
2. Routes air and food into proper channels
3. Voice production - 8What does the term 'glottis' meanGlottis means the opening of the true vocal cords
- 9How does voice production work in the pharynxSpeech is the intermittent release of expired air, pitch is determined by length and tension, loudness depends on force of air, chambers and sinus cavities enhance sound
- 10How fast do vocal cords vibrateMen: 110 cycles/s
Women: 180-220 cycles/s
Children: 300 cycles/s - 11Sphincter functions of the larynxVocal cords may PREVENT air passage
E.g. Valsalva's maneuver
Glottis closes, ab muscles contract, intra-abdominal pressure increases, helps to empty rectum or stabilize trunk when heavy lifting - 123 layers of trachea wall1. Mucosa: ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells
2. Submucosa: connective tissue with cartilage rings to prevent collapse
3. Adventitia: outmost layer of connective tissue - 13Makeup and function of trachealis muscleSmooth muscle fibers on posterior part of cartilage rings that contract during coughing to expel mucus
- 14Characteristics of the carinaWhere trachea branches into primary bronchi, very sensitive, violent coughing will initiate if contacted by foreign substance
- 15Anatomical features of conducting and respiratory zones (bronchial tree)Conducting: Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
Respiratory: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli - 16Changes from bronchi to bronchioles1. Support structure changes: rings become irregular plates, elastic fibers replace cartilage
2. Epithelium type changes: mainly cuboidal
3. Amount of smooth muscle increases (in asthma too much) - 17Characteristics of respiratory membraneBlood-air barrier, very thin, alveolar and capillary walls
- 18What does the alveoli walls consist of?- Single layer of squamous epithelium (type 1 alveoli cells)
- Scattered type 2 alveoli cells that secrete surfactant - 19Function of alveolar poresconnect adjacent alveoli
equalize air pressure
provide alternate routes if there is a blockage - 20Function of alveolar macrophageskeep alveolar surface sterile, many are dead and are swallowed with mucosa
- 21What are lobulesSmallest subdivisions of lungs visible
- 22What is stromaThe other substance to alveoli in the lungs that are elastic connective tissue (makes sponge elastic and spongey)
- 23Segments of the pleuraePleurae: membrane that divides thoracic cavity into two
Parietal pleura: membrane on thoracic wall around lungs and heart
Visceral pleura: membrane on external lung surface
Pleural cavity: fluid space between visceral and parietal pleura - 24Instruments for pulmonary function testsSpirometer (can test most), body plethysmography (can test all), peak flow meter (home monitoring)
- 25Tidal volume (TV)Normal breathing under resting conditions
- 26Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after normal tidal inhalation
- 27Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after tidal exhalation
- 28Residual Volume (RV)Amount of air remaining in the lungs after forced expiration
- 29Inspiratory Capacity (IC)Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after normal breathing
- 30Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)Amount of air remaining in the lungs after tidal breathing
- 31Vital Capacity (VC)Maximum amount of air that count be expired after a maximum inspiration
- 32Total Lung Capacity (TLC)Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort
- 33Forced Expiration Volume (FEV1)Amount of gas expelled during first full second
- 34Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)Time for total amount of air forcibly expelled after full inhalation, approx. 6 seconds
- 35FEV1/FVC RatioUseful measure of airway obstruction, usually around 80-90% in healthy adults
- 36How would you diagnose obstructive pulmonary disease?Increased resistance resulting in increased TLC, FRC or RV
- 37How would you diagnose restrictive pulmonary disease?Reduction in total lung capacity, reduction in VC, TLC, FRC and RV
- 38Formula for dead spaceTotal (physiological) dead space (Vd) = Anatomical vs alveolar dead space
- 39Minute Ventilation Rate (MVR)Gas flowing in or out of respiratory tract
Frequency x Vt - 40Alveolar Ventilation RateTotal gas flowing in and out of alveolar in one minute
Frequency x (Vt - dead space) - 41What nerves are the lungs innervated by?Parasympathetic and sympathetic motor fibers, nerves enter though pulmonary plexus, phrenic nerve innervates the diaphragm
- 42Where is the respiratory center in the brain?Pons
Medulla oblongata
- Dorsal and ventral respiratory groups - 43Muscles of normal inhalationDiaphragm, external intercostals
- 44Muscles of normal expirationElastic recoil of diaphragm and external intercostals
- 45Muscles of forced inhalationScalenus, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major and minor
- 46Muscles of forced expirationInternal intercostals and abdominals
- 47Boyles LawP1 x V1 = P2 x V2
- 48Characteristics of intrapulmonary pressurePressure in the alveoli, rises and falls with breathing phases, eventually equalizes with Patm
- 49Characteristics of intrapleural pressurePressure in the pleural cavity, always a negative pressure to prevent the collapse of lungs
- 50Why is intrapleural pressure negative?Elastic recoil, surface tension of alveolar fluid, elasticity of thorax walls pulling chest outwards, pleural fluid hold visceral and parietal layer together like water on two panes of glass
- 51What is transpulmonary pressure and what is the formula for it?Difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure
Ptp = Ppul - Pip
Greater Ptp, greater the lung volume - 52What happens in Pip = PpulThe lungs collapse
- 53Order of events: InspirationActive process
Muscles contract, thoracic volume increases, lungs and stretched and ip volume increases, air flows across concentration gradient until Pip = Patm - 54Order of events: ExpirationNormally passive
Muscles relax, thoracic cavity volume decreases, air flows down pressure gradient until Ppul = 0
Forced expiration is active - 55Physical factors influencing pulmonary ventilation1. Airway resistance
2. Alveolar surface tension
3. Lung compliance - 56Characteristics and formula for airway resistanceFriction causes resistance to gas flow
F = delta P (pressure gradient between atm and alveoli) / R (resistance) - 57Why is airway resistance usually insignificantLarge airway diameters in first part of conducting zone
Progressive branching
Resistance disappears at terminal bronchioles where diffusion drives gas movement - 58What does epinephrine do to ventilation and how is it usedDilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance, released during sympathetic nervous activation and used as a drug for asthma patients
- 59Characteristics of alveolar surface tensionSurfactant (made by type II alveolar cells) reduce surface tension of alveolar fluid and prevent collapse
- 60Characteristics of lung complianceStretchiness of lungs measured by a change in lung volume, normally high
- 61How can lung compliance be damagedNon-elastic scar tissue, reduced production of surfactant, decreased compliance of thoracic wall = more energy to breathe
- 62What is external respiration influenced by?1. Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
2. Thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane
3. Ventilation-prefusion coupling - 63What gas increases in partial pressure in the alveoli02
- 64Characteristics of the thickness and surface area of the respiratory membraneSurface area is large, if waterlogged gas exchange cannot occur,
- 65Characteristics of ventilation-perfusion couplingVentilation: Amount of gas reaching the alveoli
Perfusion: blood flow reaching the alveoli
Must be matched for efficient gas exchange - 66What controls PERFUSION by changing arteriole diameterP02
- 67What controls VENTILATION by changing bronchiolar diameterPC02
Low PCO2 = bronchoconstriction
High CO2 = bronchodilation - 68Is PO2 higher or lower in tissues than it is in circulating bloodLower
- 69Where is 02 in the blood?98.5% bound to Fe atom of hemoglobin
1.5% in plasma
4 Fe atoms in 1 Hb therefore, 4 02 molecules (8 oxygen atoms) - 70What's the difference between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobinOxyhemoglobin - Hb carrying oxygen
Deoxyhemoglobin - Hb that has released 02 - 71What is loading and unloading of Hb facilitated by?The shape of the Hb molecule
- 72What is loading and unloading of Hb regulated by?P02 , PC02, temperature, PH, concentration of BPG
- 73What increases the affinity for 02 in Hb?A reduction in P02 in the blood
- 7402 in arterial vs venous bloodArterial: 100 mm Hg, Hb 98% sat
Venous: 40 mm Hg, Hb 75% sat (venous reserve) - 75Where does 02 affinity start to plateau70 mmHg
- 76What will shift the dissociation curve right (decrease affinity for 02)Increase in temp, H+ ions, acidity, PCO2 and BPG
- 77What will shift the dissociation curve left (increase affinity for 02)Decrease in temp, H+ ions, acidity, PCO2 and BPG
- 78What is hypoxia and it's causesInadequate 02 delivery to tissues
- Too few RBCs
- RBC
- Blocked blood circulation
- Metabolic poisons
- Pulmonary disease
- Carbon monoxide poisoning - 79What does carbon dioxide and water dissociate intoC02 + H20 -> H2CO3 -> H+ HCO3
Carbon dioxide + water -> carbonic acid -> hydrogen ion + bicarbonate ion - 80Transport and exchange of CO2 in systematic capillariesBicarbonate ions diffuse from RBC into plasma, then chloride shift occurs (outrush of HCO3 balanced by Cl- moving into plasma)
- 81Transport and exchange of CO2 in lungsHC03 moves into RBC with H ion combining to make H2CO3 that is split up by carbonic anhydrase to make CO2 and H20
- 82Influence of C02 on blood pHH2C03 is alkaline
Excess H+ removed by combining with HCO3
Too little H+ results in H2C03 dissociation - 83How does changes in respiratory rate result in blood pH changeSlow shallow breathing allows C02 to accumulate, causing pH to drop
- 84What is the reticular formationFound in brainstem and control respiration rate
- 85Function of Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)Near root of cranial nerve, integrates input (like an air traffic control)
- 86Function of Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)Rhythm-generating integrative center, sets eupnea (breathing rate), excited breathing muscles
- 87Role of pontine respiratory centerSmooths respiratory pattern (breathing in and out)
- 88Genesis of respiratory ryhtmNot well understood
Most likely two sets of interconnected neural pathways in the medulla - 89How are depth and rate of breathing determinedDepth is HOW ACTIVELY respiratory centers stimulate muscles
Rate is determined by HOW LONG respiratory centers are active
Both are modifiable to changing body conditions - 90Influence of PaCO2CO2 accumulates in the brain
Releases H+ ions and lowers pH - 91What does accumulating H+ ions do?stimulates the chemical receptors of the brain stem, increasing rate and depth of breathing
- 92Influence of Pa02: peripheral chemoreceptorsWhen excited by 02, they decrease ventilation rate
A very big drop in 02 pressure will cause an increase in ventilation - 93What does hyperventilation result inIncreased rate of breath that exceeds bodies need to get rid of C02
- Causes CO2 levels to decline (causes cerebral vasoconstriction) - 94What is apneaPeriod of breathing cessation, occurs when CO2 in abnormally low
- 95What's the most powerful respiratory stimulant?Rising CO2 levels unless PO2 falls below 60mmHg
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- University Anatomy and Physiology FlashCards sobre Respiratory System, criado por Miriam Barbara em 11-06-2024.
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- Miriam Barbara
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