chapter 7: Human Memory

chapter 7: Human Memory

1. Encoding & Storing Information in Memory

   • Encoding involves forming a memory code.
   • Storage involved maintaining encoded information in memory time
   • Attention Involves focusing awareness in a narrowed range of stimuli or events selective attention is critical to everyday functioning
   • Levels of processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longest-lasting memory codes.
   • ELABORATION is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding.
   • DUAL CODING THEORY holds the memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
   • SELF REFLECT ENCODING involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant.
   • SENSORY MEMORY preserves information n its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second.
   • SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds
     • REHEARSAL- the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
       • WORKING MEMORY is a limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action
         • WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY refers to ones ability to hold and manipulate information is conscious attention
   • LONG TERM MEMORY (LTM) is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
     • FLASHBULB MEMORIES - are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
   • CLUSTERING- the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
     • SCHEMA - is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
       • SEMANTIC NETWORK consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
         • CONNECTIONIST orPARALELL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (PDP) models assume that cognitive processes depend on patters of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks.

2. Retrieving & Forgetting memory

   • Retrieval involved recovering information from memory stores
   • TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON- the temporary inablity to remember something you know accompanied by a feeling that its just out of reach
     • MISINFORMATION EFFECT occurs when participants reacall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading information
       • REALITY MONITORING refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (ones perception of actual events) or internal sources (ones thoughts & imagination)
         • SOURCE MONITORING involves making attribui=tions about the origins of memories.
           • SOURCE-MONITORING ERROR occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
             • DESTINATION MEMORY involves recalling to whom one has told what
   • FORGETTING CURVE graphs retention and forgetting over time
     • RETENTION refers to the proportion of the material retained (learned)
       • RECALL measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues
         • RECOGNITION measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options
           • a RELEARNING measure of retention requires sunjects to memorize information a second time to dedicate how much time or how many practice trial are saved by having learned it before
             • INEFFECTIVE CODING is when you cant remember what you just read
               • DECAY THEORY proposes that forgetting occirs because memiory chases fade with time
                 • INTERFERENCE THEORY propses that people forget information because of compettion from other material
                   • RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE occurs when the new information impairs the retention of previousl learned information
                     • PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information
                       • the ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE states that the value of a retreieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code
                         • TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE processing occurs when he initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
                           • REPRESSION refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feeling buried in the unconscious

3. Physiology & System Types of memory

   • RETROGRADE AMNESIA involves the loss of memories for events that occured prior to the onset of amnesia
     • ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia
   • IMPLICIT MEMORY is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remmebering
     • EXPLICIT MEMORY involves intentional recollection of previous
       • DECLARATIVE MEMORY system handles factual informaiton
         • NONDECLARATIVE/ PROCEDURAL system houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditional responses
   • EPISODIC MEMORY SYSTEM is made up of chronological, or temoprally dated, recollections of personal experiences
     • SEMANTIC MEMORY SYSTEM contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned
       • PROSPECTIVE MEMORY involves remembering to perform actions in the future
         • RETROSPECTIVE MEMORY involves remembering events from the past previously learned information

4. MNEMONIC DEVICES are methods used to increase recall information

   • SERIAL POSITION EFFECT occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle
     • LINK METHOD involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together
       • the method of LOCI involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
         • KEYWORD method is when you associate a concrete word with an abstract word and generate an image to represent the concrete word
           • HINDSIGHT BIAS is the tendency to mould our interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out

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