Developmental

Developmental

1. Theories of attachment

   • Learning theory
     • Classical cond. states that we learn primarily through association. To begin with food is an unconditional stimuli, the PAF is neutral until they are associated with the food.
     • Operant cond. states that we learn through consequences, Food=primary reinforcer(fulfils a biological need), it is linked to the PAF= secondary stimuli.
     • Bowlby's theory is supported by far more convincing evidence & has better use in society.
     • Schaffer & Emerson(1964)babies were monitored for care from their parents and 39% attached to the parent that was sensitive/playful rather than the feeding/cleaning parent. This is contradictory evidence as 39% chose comfort OVER food.
     • Harlow's monkeys(1959)there is critical evidence that suggests infants do not form attachments because of association with food. Infant monkeys when given a choice attached to a soft monkey that provided comfort but not food rather than a mesh monkey that provided food but no comfort. The monkeys also chose comfort over food when scared(secure base)
       • Although can't be generalised to humans it is still evidence of attachment.
     • Scientific & Face validity
   • Bowlby's evolutionary theory
     • Main Principals
       • 1.Attachment is innate & adaptive
       • 2.Care giving is innate & adaptive
       • 3.Sensitive period (0-3yrs) bad=developmental retardation/affectionless psychopathy
       • 4.Attachment is monotropic
       • 5.Attachment provides a secure base
       • 6.Attachment forms our Internal Working Model.
     • WOLFF(1969) women are able to identify differerent cries and respond correctly
     • MINNESOTA STUDY(2005) infants studied and bonds rated, then observed at adolescence for social skills. Secure attachments in infancy=better social skills in adolescence.
     • REAL WORLD APPLICATION- explanation has strangely influenced the work of Mary Ainsworth who developed the SS (still popular method for measuring infant attachments types today)
     • THE CZECH TWINS- full emotional and intellectual recovery after 7 years of maternal deprivation.
     • SCHAFFER & EMERSON(1964) assessed 60 infants every 4wks until 18 mnths, at 18mnts 31% had5/more attachments- 13% attached to 1 person. 30% mother was joint.

2. The Strange Situation

   • Introduction- caregiver & infant- caregiver&infant&stranger- infant&stranger- parent&infant- infant- infant&stranger-caregiver&infant
     • - reaction to separation from PCG -reaction to a reunion -reaction the the presence of a stranger -willingness to explore novel environment(alone with PCG/stranger)
   • Can't be applied to other cultures
   • HAZAN&SHAVERS(1987) newspaper/love quiz/showed similar results
   • Maternal sensitivity hypothesis(Ainsworth&Bell)
     • Type A- mothers not sensitive to baby, not responsive, tend to forget
     • Type B- mothers sensitive to baby, respond quickly & correctly, provide warmth&contact
     • Type C- mothers' behaviour is inconsistent, sometimes sensitive/ignored infants cry for attention

3. Cross Cultural research into attachment types

   • SAGI ET AL(Israel) studied children raised on a Kibbutz (raised by nurses but saw parents) 33% were insecurely resistent, 5% were avoidant- the strangeness of the situation was distressing as it doesn't happen on a Kibbutz.
   • TAKAHASHI ET AL(Japan) infants were distressed on separation but happy exploring with PCG(secure base). 33% of infants classified as having an insecure resistant attachment type.
   • GROSSMAN ET AL(Germany) 49% had an insecure avoidant attachment type, they promote independence more than others & want their children to stand on their own two feet and not be so conformist.
   • VANIJZENDOORN & KROONENBERG(meta analysis) type B is the most common in all cultures regardless, temperament/maternal sensitivity dictate attachments.
   • HARD TO GENERALISE to the whole culture
   • ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATION- Temperament hypothesis(Thomas & Chess1977) longitudinal study of 138 infants in New York showed that: 40% easy temperaments, 10% difficult temperaments, 15% slow to warm up, 35% 'mixed'
     • concluded that temperaments were largely inborn/innate as many aspects were evident in first few weeks of life to adulthood
   • Research not relevant to other cultures- the concept of a secure attachment changes from culture to culture, many German mothers see our Type B children as spoilt brats, in contrast we see German type A children as distant.

4. Research into daycare

   • SHEA videotaped 3-4yr olds in the playground during their first 10 wks of nursery. Compared those attending 5 days to 2. Those in 5 days a week= greater sociability(closer prox to peers)
     • Study uses standardised procedures
   • CLARKE-STEWART ET AL studied 150 US children aged 2-3yrs, compared those in day care to those cared for at home by mothers. Day care children showed more advanced peer relationships(better negotiating&learned to cope in social situations
     • Hard to generalise the findings to non western cultures because took place in America. Unlikely to get same results in Japan.
   • NICHD(NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH & HUMAN DEVELOPMENT) studied US children from various backgrounds, measured amount of time spent in daycare, adults rated the aggressiveness of children. More time spent in day care=higher aggressive rating, full time daycare= more likely to tantrum.
     • pre-existing factors like the child's temperament/attachment type/aggression could have made the child more aggressive anyhow.
   • Characteristics of a good quality daycare
     • 1.low adult-child ratios
     • 2.small sized group
     • 3.well trained staff&low staff turnover
     • 4.a secure attachment- key worker system. Adult allocated to a child who= an attachment figure when child is stressed.
     • 5.a structured day

5. Separation & Deprivation

   • Stages of ST separation
     • 1.protest, child cries & protests on separation, likely to cling but struggle from others
     • 2.despair, appear calmer, still upset, refuses others' attempts comfort(withdrawn & may engage in self comforting behaviours)
     • 3.detachment, child may begin to engage with others(wary&distant) show anger at PCG upon return
   • ROBERTSON&ROBERTSON'S separation research- despite providing good support for their PDD model, the Robertsons neglected to consider how some key factors may influence the infants response to bond disruption(number of other children/presence of siblings/temperament/age/previous experience of sep/attachment type)
   • Bowlby's 44 juvenile thieves

6. Privation

   • GENIE(Curtiss 1977) locked in dark room, physically/emotionally deprived, punished for any noise or attempts at language, despite psycho therapy, physiotherapy and intense speech therapy, never able to fully recover, never mastered language&spent rest of life in institution '11/2 small docs'
   • THE CZECH TWINS(Koluchova 1972) lost their mother shortly after birth, social agency(1yr) aunts(6mnths) dad and step family. Shut away in a small unheated room- deprived of food/exercise/any other human companionship. Rescued at age 7- looked like 3 yr olds, very smll & could hardly walk/talk, placed with 2 wealthy sisters.
     • had intense speech/phsio &psychotherapy. At age 14 they made a full intellectual, 21 full emotional recovery.
   • Not easy/ethical to replicate
   • Unethical to Q people on painful past
   • Case studies not representative
   • Studies into Privation
     • GOLDFARB(1943) assessed 15 kids raised in institutions from 6mnths to 3 and a half yrs, 'matched' them with a group who went straight from mother to foster parents.Institutional kids in complete social isolation during first year. At 3 institutional kids were way behind the fostered kids on:abstract thinking, social maturity, rule following&sociability. At 14 they were still way behind.
     • HODGES&TIZARD(1989) 65 kids been in institutionalial care: 24 adopted, 15 restored to biological family, 26stayed in institution. Socially/emotionally assessed at 4,8,16. Adopted had least behaviour problems, adopted&restored=most attention seeking, restored=clingier, adopted=strong attachment to carers/more affectionate than the norm. All 3 groups unpopular at school. At 16 adopted=most normal relationships with family&peers. SOME EFFECTS ARE PARTIALLY REVERSIBLE
   • Critical points of reversing privation
     • 1. quality of care at the institution
     • 2. age of child when removed from Privation (Czech twins/Genie)
     • 3. quality of care after Privation- do best when in loving supportive environment need opportunity to form one2one attachment
     • 4. later life experiences