Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology

1. The Skeleton

   • Cranium
   • Clavicle
   • Humerous
   • Sternum
     • Radius
       • Phalanges
         • Fibular
           • Scapular
     • Carpals
       • Femur
         • Tarsal
           • Vertebrae
       • Patella
         • Tibia
           • Metatarsals
         • Calcaneous
   • Pelvis
     • Ulna
     • Metacarpals

2. Muscles e.g.

   • Pectoralis major/minor
     • Vastus Laterallis
       • rectus femoris
         • Tricep brachii
           • Obliques
         • Bicep Femoris
   • Bicep Brachii
   • Rectus Abdominus
   • Illiopsoas
     • Vastus Intermedialis
       • Vastus Medialis
         • Tibialis anterior
           • Erector Spinae
             • Posterior deltoid
           • Gastrocnemius
             • Wrist extensors
               • semi-membranosus
                 • semi-tendonusus
   • Wrist Flexors

3. Movement types

   • Abduction- moving away from the midline of the body
   • Adduction- moving towards the midline of the body
   • Circumduction- a body part moves from the anatomical position
     • Pronation- the radio ulna joint- the palm faces backwards or downwards
       • Subination- the radio ulna joint- the palm faces forwards or upwards
   • Dorsiflexion- the foot moves towards the shin
     • Plantarflexion- the foot moves away from the shin
       • Lateral flexion- bending sideways at the waist

4. Three types of motion

   • Linear- movement along a straight/curved line where all parts have the same speed, direction and distance e.g. skeleton
   • Angular- movement around a fixed point/axis e.g. a wheel's rotation in cycling
   • General- combination of linear and angular e.g. long jump

5. Types of force

   • Direct- force is applied through the object's centre of mass, resulting in linear motion e.g. striking the centre of a football
   • Eccentric- force is applied outside the centre of mass resulting in angular motion e.g. striking the edge of a football

6. Newton's Laws of Motion

   • Inertia- "a body/object continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity unless acted on by an external force" e.g. kicking a static football
   • Acceleration- "the rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the force applied to it" e.g. kicking the ball harder means it travels faster
   • Action and reaction- "for every action and reaction there is an equal and opposite reaction" e.g. the force the ball exerts onto the tennis racket is exerted back onto the racket

7. Stablility

   • how difficult it is to disturb a body from a balanced position
   • Centre of mass= the point at which the body is balanced in all directions
   • Base of support= an imaginary line around everything in contact with the ground
   • Line of gravity= a line travelling from the centre of mass vertically to the ground

8. The heart

   • The Cardiac Cycle
   • The Conduction System
   • Heart rate= the amount of heartbeats in a minute (average is 70-72bpm)
   • Stroke Volume= the volume of blood that leaves the heart each beat (average 70ml)
   • Coronary Heart Disease
     • Arteriosclerosis
     • Atherosclerosis
     • Angina
     • Heart attack
   • Cardiac output= the volume of blood that leaves the heart per minute (average 4900ml)

9. Venous Return

   • Starling's Law
   • Maintaining Venous Return
     • Pocket Valves
       • One way valves in the veins prevent backflow of blood and direct it towards the heart
     • Muscle Pump
       • Veins are found between skeletal muscles, which when contracting/relaxing push/squeeze blood to the heart
     • Respiratory Pump
       • Breathing becomes deeper/faster during exercise, increasing pressure in the abdomen, squeezing large veins and forcing blood back to the heart
     • Smooth Muscle
       • Contraction/relaxation of smooth muscle in the middle layer of the vein walls helps push blood through the veins
     • Gravity
       • Blood from the upper body is aided by gravity as it descends to the heart
     • Blood Pooling
       • Blood Pressure
         • Resistance
           • The friction of the blood cells as they travel against the vessel wall; this is termed viscosity (fluid friction)
         • Exercise
         • The pressure exerted by the blood against the blood vessel walls
       • If there is insufficient pressure to push deoxygenated blood back to the heart, blood will sit in the pocket valves of veins
         • Blood pooling is often described as a feeling of heavy legs

10. Cardiac Control Centre (CCC)

    • Neural Control
      • Proprioreceptors which detect muscle activity change, chemoreceptors which detect chemical change and baroreceptors that detect the stretching of blood vessel walls
    • Hormonal Control
      • Before/during exercise, adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands to directly stimulate the SA node, increasing HR and SV
    • Intrinsic Control
      • Detects an increase in temperature and venous return as exercise increases and vice versa
    • Located in the Medulla Oblongata, it controls HR and SV. The CCC is involuntary and is controlled by the ANS
      • ANS is divided into sympathetic, which increases HR, and parasympathetic, which decreases HR.

11. The VCC and Vascular Shunt Mechanism

12. Transport of O2 and CO2

    • Vascular effects of a Warm Up
      • Vasoconstriction of arterioles/pre-capillary sphincters to restrict blood flow to organs and vice versa
      • Decrease in onset of blood lactate accumulation due to early anaerobic activity onset
      • Increase in temperature decreases blood viscosity to improve blood flow
      • Increased temperature increases enzyme transportation required for energy systems and muscle contraction
    • Vascular effects of a Cool Down
      • Elevates metabolic activity to gradually decrease HR and BR
      • Maintains blood flow to continue supply of oxygen and maintain blood pressure
      • Maintains respiratory + muscle pumps for venous return and blood pooling prevention
      • Dilates capillaries to flush muscles with oxygenated blood + increase lactic acid ad C02 removal
    • Oxygen= 3% blood plasma + 97% oxyhaemoglobin
    • Carbon Dioxide= 7% blood plasma + 23% carbominahaemoglobin + 70% carbonic acid

13. Respiration System

    • Mechanics of Breathing