Karteikarten
Lecture 9: Language 1
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- 1What are eye-tracking methods?Participants read text on a computer screen - eye-movements monitored whilst doing this.
- 2How do our eyes move?Eye-movements consist of eye fixations (for about 250 msec each) and saccades (eye jumps from one location to another).
10-15% of all eye-movements are backwards (regressions) and they allow the reader to (re)look at previously read text. - 3What is perceptual span? McConkie & Rayner,1975)When fixating at a point in a word, you can actually see about 4 characters to the left and 12-15 to the right of fixation.
- 4Eye-movements and frequency effectsWe can calculate how frequently different words appear in a particular language.
' The concerned steward calmed the child'
' The concerned student calmed the child'.
The only difference between the 2 sentences is 'steward' (low frequency word) and 'student' (high frequency word).
Rayner and Duffy (1986) - report increased reading times to steward over student. - 5Understanding sentencesComputing the syntactic structure of sentences is called parsing.
Sentence parsing involves determining the relationship between the different elements of a sentence and assigning them to syntactic categories (e.g. noun, adjective, verb) - 6What is syntax?Building of sentences according to grammatical rules; arrangements of words into an order that results in a meaningful sentence.
- 7What is local ambiguity?"When Fred passes the ball it always gets to its target"
"When Fred passes the ball always gets to its target".
The phrase 'the ball' is temporarily ambiguous - it could be the object of the verb 'passes' or it could be the subject of the next phrase 'always gets to its target".
You find out only after you have read 'the ball' which interpretation is correct. - 8What is global ambiguity?"The spy saw the cop with the binoculars"
This is ambiguous between an interpretation where the phrase "with the binoculars" is attached to the verb phrase, and an interpretation where it is attached to the noun phrase. E.g. saw cop through binoculars, or saw cop holding binoculars. - 9What are models of parsing?If someone you are speaking to uttered this sentence, or it came across it during reading, choosing the incorrect interpretation will cause comprehension problems.
One class of parsing models says you use syntactic information to construct the simplest syntactic representation. - 10What is the garden path model? Frazier, 1979Defines simplicity in terms of the simplest syntactic structure that you can construct.
Stage 1: identify syntactic categories and build initial structure.
Stage 2: assess outcome against context, semantic plausibility, real-world knowledge
Garden path model very influential - generated lots of experiments. - 11What is discourse processing?Involved the linking together of units of text (sentences) in order to construct a coherent mental representation.
Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983) - proposed that understanding a discourse involves 3 levels of representation:
1. A level representing the surface form
2. level representing the text base
3. level representing the situation model - 12What is the situation model?Memory for the surface form of a discourse is rapidly lost.
What people remember is something akin to the text base and the situation model levels of representation. - 13What was Bransford, Barclay and Frank's study? (1972)1A= Three turtles rested on a floating log, and a fish swam beneath them.
1B= Three turtles rested on a floating log and a fish swam beneath it.
2A = Three turtles rested beside a floating log, and a fish swam beneath them.
2B = Three turtles rested beside a floating log, and a fish swam beneath it.
Participants heard 1A or 2A during initial phase. When they heard sentence 1B in the testing phase, they thought they had heard that sentence in the initial phase.
However, when they heard sentence 2B, they didnt confuse it with 2A. As 1A and 1B lead to the same situation models.
Readers remember text at a situational model level. - 14What are inferences?An inference is a piece of information that is not explicitly stated in the text but is represented in a situation model.
So in the Bransford example, the fish swimming beneath the log is an inference that the reader could draw after reading 1A. - 15What are logical inferences?Based on formal rules and as a result are 100% certain.
Follow from the meanings of words. - 16Bridging inferencesHelp us to relate new to previous information.
We use them to make information coherent by linking new information to previously obtained information. - 17What are elaborative inferences?Involve extending what is in the text with world knowledge.
Semantic associations from the basis for this type of inference making. - 18What is the influence of reader preference on inference generation?Rapp and Gerrig (2006) - found that inferences people generated were influenced by how they felt about the characters in stories.
- 19What is the event-indexing model?Zwaan, Langstong and Graesser (1995) - proposed this to account for how readers build situation models.
Proposes that events are connected along dimensions of time, space, causality and intentionality and that readers keep track of events along these dimensions.
The model has led to much research and it explains a number of previous findings. - 20Shifts of time, space and protagonistTherriault, Rinck and Zwaan (2006) presented participants with text containing shifts in time, space and protagonist. Instructions asked readers to focus on each of these dimensions.
Shifts in time and protagonist always caused an increase in reading times.
Spatial shifts had their biggest effect only when experimental instructions asked readers to focus on that aspect of the story.
Reading time increases can be thought of as reflecting the reader creating a new chapter in their situation model - 21What are the shifts in time?Speer and Zacks (2005) examined how event boundaries (when one event ends and another begins) are mentally represented during reading.
Participants slower to respond to probe words after long time shifts - resulted in information related to events before the time shift being less accessible to memory. - 22What are anaphors?Take their meaning from the thing they refer back to.
e.g. Jim bumped into Bill and BILL fell over (Second Bill is anaphor).
They differ in their level of ambiguity
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- Cognition Karteikarten am Lecture 9: Language 1 , erstellt von Gabriella kiernan am 07/01/2020.
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