Karteikarten
Quantitative
Karten in diesem Stapel (138)
- 1Descriptive AnalysisDescribes how the data gathered is distributed.
- 2Inferential StatisticsProviding evidence that what was observed was not due to chance
- 3Paraterm DataInterval in nature
Group together
Common mean, individually vary - 4Nonparametric DataCategorical data
- 5Problems with Sophisticated, Computerized Statistical PackagesExpensive
You still need to understand what the tools offered will do & how to interpret - 6Data EntryCode
Label
Define
Enter
Save - 7Bivariate AnalysisAllows you to examine how two different variables break down
- 8Crosstabs OutputTells you how many valid, missing, and total cases you have.
- 9Multivariate Cross TabulationAdds "layers" to the analysis
3 variables - 10Cross TabulationsPresented as two-way tables
Observations OR percentages - 11Data Central TendencyHow data is distributed around the mean
- 12Standard DeviationRange of scores that would normally be seen
- 13Special BivariateA measure of the relationship between 2 variables
- 14CorrelationTells you how 2 variables are related in a linear fashion
ALSO
Tells you influence & variance in the relationship - 15When can Correlations Calculate?Can be calculated between: categorical variables & continuous variables
- 16Correlation MatrixWhen you report a number of correlations
- 17Scatter DiagramDemonstrate the correlation graphically
- 18Factor AnalysisScale of items first
Statistical tool
Establishes dimensionality
ALL measures - 19Non-Parametric StatisticsEmployed when the variables of interest are categorical
- 20Chi-Square StatisticsDifferentiates between what was observed/measured and what was ACTUALLY expected
- 21Parametric StatisticsTests for differences in mean and medians
Focused on differences & not predictions - 22T-TestMost basic
Looks for differences between 2 groups - 23Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)The statistic approach for tests that have multiple-level independent variables and a continuous dependent variable
- 24MeasurementThe process by which we observe
Formal and Informal
A way of giving a precise dimension - 25Measurement TheoryMeasuring behaviours via scales
Measuring attitudes, beliefs, values - 26Why Measure Concepts?Measurement shows the small differences between people & issues we are interested in.
- Allows us to estimate what the relationship is - 27Nominal- Describes the concept in words
- Compares 2 things but neither is better
- Categorical Measurement
- Distinguishes
- Do not possess any ordering
EX. Sports team numbers (assigned based on preference) - 28OrdinalPlaces observations in some type of order
- Categorical Measurement
- Orders and Distinguishes
- Categories
EX. What year of university are you in?(1,2,3,4)... - 29OperationalDescribes how the concept is to be measured
- 30IntervalDistances between observations are all equal
- Continuous
- Measurement data are defined on a continuum
EX. Strongly agree, agree, disagree etc... - 31Ratio- Adds the requirement of an absolute zero to the continuum.
- Occurs when observations are based on a continuum.
- Continous
- Assumes absolute distancing between categories
EX. Actual date and time of birth - 32IndicatorTell us that there may be a link and tell us how strong that link may be.
- One indicator for each concept - 33Why is it more advantageous to use more than one indicator of a concept?- Reduces the likelihood of misclassifying people
- Ensures the definition is understood
- Wider range of issues
- Allows factor analysis - 34Categorical Data-Places observations into classes
- Reported as counts, percentages, and proportions - 35Continuous DataPlaces observations on a continuum
- Reported as averages, ranges, standard deviations
- - 36Attitude Measurement- Assumes interval data
- Respondents "react"
- Must have a zero point
- Must have an odd number of two or more statements - 37Measurement ReliabilityThe extent to which a measurement scale measures the same thing again
ESTABLISHING: Correlation - 38Measurement ValidityThe extent to which a measurement scale actually measures what it is believed to measure.
- 39ReliabilityThe extent to which results would be consistent.
- Stability over time
- Test-re-test method - 40Internal ReliabilityMultiple measures administered in one sitting consistent with each other
- 41Inter-Observer ConsistencyAll observes should classify behaviour or attitudes in the same way.
- 42Face Validity- Based on the researcher's knowledge of the concept being measured
- The lowest form of measurement validity
- Established if at first glance the measure appears to be valid - 43Concurrent Validity- Is established if it is thought to be relevant to the concept
- Shows that your test is valid by comparing it with an already valid test - 44Construct Validity- Is established if the concepts relate to each other in a way consistent with the theory
- A dimension of measurement
- Provides second levels of validity (asking someone to look over) - 45Criterion Related ValidityCan be related to other established measures
OR
Successfully predicts behaviour
- Compares 1 measure against others - 46Measurement Validity- A measure that is not reliable will also not be valid
- Can be no mistakes or the data becomes unusable
- A measure may be INVALID but still reliable - 47Measurement (Main Goals of Quantitative Researchers)Data is used to understand social phenomena, concepts, and their interrelations....
- 48Establishing Causality (Main Goals of Quantitative Research Measurement)- Researchers want to know what causes social problems, phenomena...
- 49Instrument Error (Measurement Errors)The tool you are using is inaccurate
- 50Application Error (Measurement Error)- Using a tool wrong
- The key to measurement is minimizing error - 51Test-re-Test Reliability (Measurement Error)Measures the same thing twice to see if the two tests obtain the same results
- 52Internal Consistency (Measurement Errors)- When you have the same question or statement twice, if both are answered correctly, than you have evidence of the measures internal consistency.
- 53Measurement ScaleCurrent measurement in PR is attempting to create measures to evaluate PR effectiveness
- Measures attitudes - 54Attitude Scale ConstructionComposed of a number of individual items
- Attitudes consists of several dimensions, some scales dimensions behind the attitudes - 55Steps to Creating an Attitude Scale1. Assumes the level of measurement is at the interval level
2. To asses, the scale must allow 'no'
3. To asses reliability, must include two more items per scale - 56Millennials Seek Cultural Variety in What They Eat- Conducted by Harris Poll
- Online
- Adults & US
- "There is a clear demand for multicultural influence in the lives of American Adults" - 57External PublicThose that may invest in the organization or report to groups that may invest
- 58Internal PublicsThe organizations employees, stockholders, stakeholders, directors...
- 59Intervening PublicsThose that intervene between an organization and its external publics
- 60James E. GrunigPublics can be latent (asleep), aware (kind of present), or active (those who are on and engaged).
- 61(Grunig's Four Types of Publics Based Upon Issues) All-issue PublicsThey are always active and engaged. They are high-level and active.
- 62(Grunig's Four Types of Publics Based Upon Issues) Apathetic PublicsThey don't really care (we want to know why they don't care) they don't see any value.
- 63(Grunig's Four Types of Publics Based Upon Issues) Single-Issues PublicsFocusing on one issue, to what degree can they become.
- 64(Grunig's Four Types of Publics Based Upon Issues) Hot-Issue PublicsDriven on policy issues that come up.
- 65SalienceFeelings about an issue
- 66PertinenceRelative value of an issue to the rest of your life
- 67AttitudesPredisposition or preferences regarding an issue
- 68OpinionsJudgement made about a particular situation or issue
- 69The 4 A's of ResearchAwareness
Advocacy
Appreciation
Action - 70Research AssumptionsDecision making is basically the same in all organizations.
- 71Research can be divided into 3 general phases1) Developmental
2) Refinement
3) Evaluation
Communication research is behaviour driven and knowledge based - 72Conceptualization (Tasks & Goals of the MBO Manager)Relation to PR Process:
Defining the PR problem
Goal:
To ID tasks & responsibilities to be fulfilled for maintenance of long-term relationships. - 73Monitoring (Tasks & Goals of the MBO Manager)Relation to PR Process:
Defining the PR Problem
Goal:
To anticipate and evaluate opportunities and challenges - 74Organization & Coordination (Tasks & Goals of the MBO Manager)Relation to PR Process:
Planning and Programming
Goal:
To implement effective and efficient strategies - 75Administration (Tasks & Goals of the MBO Manager)Relation to PR Process:
Taking action and communicating
Goal:
To fulfill program goals on budget and on deadline - 76Evaluation (Tasks & Goals of the MBO Manager)Relation to PR Process:
Evaluating the program
Goal:
To demonstrate and accountability & credibility.
- Provide guidance - 77GoalGeneral outcome expected by campaign end
- 78ObjectiveVery specific projected output
- 79OutputsIndividual communication elements
- 80ObjectivesObjectives are:
cause and effect related
specific to the problem - 81Informal ObjectivesGeneral and specific knowledge
- 82Motivational ObjectivesAttitudinal and belief oriented
- 83Behavioural ObjectivesActual counts $$$
- 84Motivational Objectives Require- Research
- Means to isolate effect provided by PR - 85SMART ObjectivesS: Specific
M: Measurable
A: Achievable
R: Realistic
T: Time-Phased - 86Public Relations1) The management of communication between an organization and its publics
2) The management function that maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the various publics - 87What is ROE?Public relations outcomes produce a return on expectations
- 88How Do Public Relation Practitioners Develop and Maintain Relationships?Trust, Credibility.
- 89What are the Five Variables that Impact Public Relations Practitioners Relationships with their clients?Confidence
Credibility
Relationship
Reputation
Trust - 90Target PopulationIn a certain economic or geographical area, a specific age demographic with defining characteristics
- 91Target PublicIdentified through shared self-interest and shared communication
- 92Target AudienceThe activists or trendsetters within the public who are capable of influencing them
- 93OuttakesTargeted audience perceptions during the campaigns
- 94OutcomeTheir final effect
- 95Behavioural ObjectivesIs the most important to a client, they are what is counted and determine success and failure
- 96Informational ObjectivesSpecify what audiences should know during and after the campaign or program
- 97Motivational ObjectivesMotivation is an attitudinal phenomenon aka a predisposition to act
- 98R ∫ (C,D,K)Research is the SUM of curiosity, discovery, and knowledge
- 99Curiosity starts with...An idea, an observation, a phenomenon, something that makes you say "I wonder why"
- 100Why Conduct Research?To improve "human condition"
influence others - 101DataThe observations or measurements taken when evaluating a public relations campaign or program
- 102Why conduct communications research?Essentail to any campaigns
Provides feedback
Provides a baseline
Helps establish the bottom line (benchmark) - 103FeedbackInformation about reactions to a product, a person's performance of a task etc...
- 104BaselineAn initial measurement against which all subsequent measures are compared
- 105BenchmarkA planned KPI testing whether a campaign is on target and phase against baseline expectations
- 106Return on Investment (ROI)An outcome variable that equates profit from investment
- 107Epistemological Positions: PositivismSocial scientists should use the same methods of inquiry that are used in the natural sciences.
Relies on scientific statements not normative.
The former has no judgement. - 108EmpiricismKnowledge must be based on information gathered through the senses
- 109Deductive ApproachA philosophical logic in which specific expectations or hypothesis are developed or derived on the basis of general principles
- 110InductionA philosophical logic in which general principles are developed from specific observations
- 111InterpretivismNatural observation approach is very limited
Researchers should use inductive methods
Actions should be viewed from the point of view of the social actors - 112VerstehenResearchers should develop an empathetic understanding of the people studied
- 113Questions of definitionDefines what is we are trying to observe
- 114Questions of FactArise out of questions of definition and seek to compare across or between groups
- 115Question of ValueQuestions that ask "how well" or "how good" something is
Answered best qualitatively - 116Questions of PolicyAlmost always strategic and often asked 'what should be done'
- 117TheoryAn explanation of observed regularities or patterns
- 118The purpose of Theory- To assess the adequacy of a particular communication theory
- To gather information
- To understand pressing communication problems - 119InformalFocus on single events as ends of themselves
- 120Formal "Science"Theory building
Looks at many events
Systematic and objective - 121Triangulation FormalHelps us to understand the norm
- 122Triangulation InformalHelps us to understand the individual person or campaign or corporation
- 123Triangulation Rapprochement- Uses both formal and informal methods to best describe and understand communicative behaviour
- 124Components of a TheoryDefinitions
Descriptions
Relational Statements - 125Theories of Middle RangeLimited in scope and can be tested directly
- 126Grand theoriesGeneral and abstract, cannot be tested directly
- 127The relationship between theory and researchUses deduction (one begins with a theory and then gathers data)
Induction (gathers the data and then creates an explanation) - 128Inductive ResearchThe research goes back and forth from the data to the theory...
PROBLEM: Sometimes leads only to empirical generational - 129Grounded TheoryThe data has primacy over theory because the theme emerges from looking at the data after it has been collected.
- 130Quantitative ResearchUses numbers and statistics in the collection & analysis of data
- Allows you to extend data
- Controlled, systematic observation - 131Qualitative ResearchUses mainly words and other non-numeric symbols
- Subjective
- Provides in-depth understanding of one issue, cannot be generalized.
- Uncontrolled - 132ValuesContribute to bias in research
- 133PoliticsResearchers sometimes 'take sides'
- 134Practical ConsiderationsThe choice of research method should match the research question
- 135Formal ResearchThe systematic gathering, analyzing and evaluating of data via quantitative methodologies.
- 136Informal ResearchThe observing of people, events or objects of interest as they occur typically through qualitative methods
- 137Public Relations ResearchUsed to monitor, track, measure, and assess and finally evaluate public relations actions.
- 138—
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- Beschreibung
- Communication Karteikarten am Quantitative , erstellt von Sophia Hatkoski am 04/10/2016.
- Erstellt von
- Sophia Hatkoski
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