Attachment

Attachment

1. A two way emotional tie that develops over time between two people, shown in their behaviour

2. Maccoby (1980) - 4 key behaviours that indicate that an attachment has been formed

   • Seeking proximity
   • Distress on separation
   • Orientation of behaviour
   • Joy on reunion

3. Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

   • 60 infants in Glasgow
   • Investigated the gradual development of attachment
   • Collected data by considering two types of behaviour
     • Separation Anxiety
       • Involves an infant showing anxiety or distress when separated from their primary caregiver.
     • Stranger Distress
       • Involves an infant showing distress when they are approached by an unfamiliar person. This shows that the baby can recognise familiar people.
   • Findings
     • Attachment behaviours develop in stages which are loosely linked to age.
     • Most infants showed separation anxiety around 6-8 months. Fear of strangers followed about a month later.
     • After their first attachment had formed, infants went on to form multiple attachments with a variety of people they saw regularly (grandparents, siblings, etc).
     • Statistically, it was found that 65% of infants formed their first attachment with their mother, compared to only 3% with fathers. They also discovered that 27% of infants formed multiple attachments.
   • Strengths
     • Used observation and interview to collect data
       • Use of triangulation provides rich and detailed data
     • High level of ecological validity
       • Conducted the research within the participant's own home (results can be generalised to real-life settings)
         • Un-stressful for infants; minimal psychological harm took place.
   • Weaknesses
     • Historically biased
       • Only 3% of infants formed their primary attachment with their father in 1964.
         • Findings are likely to be different due to changes in society.
     • Relatively small sample size (60 infants)
     • Study took place in only one small area so difficult to generalise the findings to the population as a whole.

4. Learning Theory

   • Behaviour is learned rather than innate.
   • Proposes that children are born as blank slates and become who they are due to their experiences.
   • Classical Conditioning
     • Learning through association
       • Proposed by Ivan Pavlov, who was conducting research on the salivation reflex in dogs.
   • Operant Conditioning
     • Learning through rewards/ punishment
       • Skinner placed hungry rats in a cage to explore their surroundings. When the rat accidentally pressed a lever that supplied a pellet of food, it quickly learned to repeat the behaviour to gain the food reward.
     • Positive Reinforcement
       • Any behaviour that produces a pleasant consequence/ reward
         • Likely to be repeated
     • Negative Reinforcement
       • Behaviours that "switch off" something unpleasant are also likely to be repeated.
         • Behaviours that lead to an unpleasant outcome (or punishment) are less likely to be repeated.
     • Dollard and Miller (1950)
       • A hungry infant feels uncomfortable which creates a drive to reduce this discomfort. When an infant is fed, the discomfort is reduced and feelings of pleasure are produced (which is rewarding). Food becomes a primary reinforcer - reinforces the behaviour to avoid discomfort. The person who supplies the food is associated with avoiding discomfort - becomes a secondary reinforcer. Attachment occurs because the child seeks the person who can supply the reward. Settling a crying baby through feeding/ cuddling acts as a negative reinforcement for parents.
   • Evaluation
     • The learning theory explanation is also known as the "cupboard love theory" of attachment because it suggests that attachment on based on provision of food alone.
     • Strengths
       • Provides an adequate explanation of how attachments form; we do learn through association and reinforcement.
     • Weaknesses
       • Strong body of evidence which suggest that attachment is not based on food.
         • The attention and responsiveness from the caregiver are more important rewards.
       • Based on studies with non-human animals (extrapolation); may lack validity due to oversimplifying human behaviour.
   • Research evidence against Learning Theory: Schaffer and Emerson (1964) and Harlow and Harlow; Rhesus Monkeys (1958)
     • Attachments are not always formed with the person who feeds the infant.
       • 39% of first attachments in this study were not with the person who carried out physical care.
         • Attachments are more likely to be formed to those who play with the baby and offer more comfort and this is though to be more rewarding.