interviews

interviews

1. types

   • structured interview
     • the sociologist has an interview schedule and is given instructions on how to ask them. this means they ask each participant the same question in the same order and tone of voice
       • young and wilmott
         • used structured interviews in their research into the extended family- they used a large sample
   • unstructured
     • are similar to a guided conversation. the interviewer has freedom to vary the questions, wording and order. the can pursue whatever line fo questioning seems appropriate at the time and ask follow up questions to probe deeper
   • semi-structured
     • this means the interviewer has an interview schedule but can ask follow up Qs
       • e.g. cicourel and kitsune always followed up with questions like 'how do you mean?' as a way of gaining more information
   • group
     • a dozen or so people are interviewed together.
       • Willis used group intervews
     • Focus groups are a form of group interviews where the interviewer asks the group to sicuss ertain topics and records their views.
     • strengths
       • participants may feel more comfortable
       • throwing ideas around may stimulate other participants thinking- richer, reflective data
       • are a way of gathering initial info
       • The researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe the dynamics of the group
     • weaknesses
       • one or two individuals may dominate- others are inhibited from contributing
       • the interviewer needs to keep the group on topic
       • peer pressure to conform
       • data generated from group interaction is harder to analyse and is more complex

2. structure interviews

   • issues often come from the interaction between the interviewer and interviewee
   • practical issues
     • while training interviewers is straightforward and relatively inexpensive, it is more expensive than posting or emailing questionnaires
     • surveys thta used structured interviews can cover a large amount of people but they cannot reach the potential huge numbers of people a questionnaire can
     • they are useful to gather factual info
     • the results are easily quantfied because they use closed ended questions with coded answers. this makes them suitable for hypothesis testing
   • response rate
     • the larger numbers of people who are interviewed means thta the more representative it will be
     • they generally have a high response rate
       • young and willmott
         • they approached 987 people and only 54 refused
           • his may be because it is harder to turn down a face-to-face interview and some may welcome th eopportunity to talk
     • the response rate can be increased if the interviewer makes call backs to those who refuse to respond.
       • this can increase the cost but the higher response rate improves representativeness and makes it easier to make generalisations
     • those with the time and willingness to be interviewed may be untypical of the rest of the population- impact the representativeness of the data and can undermine the validity of any generalisations made
   • reliability
     • reliability means that it is repreatable .
     • Structured interviews are reliable because it is easy for the researcher to control and standardise them
     • they ensure that each interview is constructed in precisely the same way, with the same questions, in the same order,with the same wording and tone fo voice
     • if each interviewer conducts every interview in exactly the same way, any other researcher following the same interview should get the same results.
     • the structured interview provides a recipe for repeating the research as in cookery, anyone who follows the recipe ought to get the same results. the fact that all interviewees are asked the same questions means that we can compare their answers easily to identify similarities and differences
   • validity
     • a valid method provides a true picture
     • critics say that structured interviews are invalid
     • they are usually done with closed ended Qs which limits the respondent as there are pre-set answers. if none of these answers fit what they want to say, the data will be invalid
     • they give interviewers little ways of clarifying or explaining misunderstandings. e.g. can usually give a mother form of words but if this doesn't work they usually have to move on to the next question
     • people may lie or exaggerate- false data
     • the interview is a social interaction and so there is always a risk that the interaction will influence the answers given e.g. ethnic and gender differences- want to be seen in a favourable lightt
   • flexibility
     • they suffer from inflexibility due to the interview schedule- the interviewer has already decided what is important
     • The findings may lack validity because they do not reflect the interviewees concerns and priorities. sticking to equations rigidly may stop the interviewer from pursuing any interesting leads that may emerge - loss of valuable insight
     • they may take a snapshot of that moment in time, they fail to capture a flowing, dynamic nature of social life
   • feminist criticisms
     • graham
       • questionnaires and structured interviews are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of women's experience. she argues that:
         • the way the interviewer controls the interview mimics women subordinate position
         • survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rater than in the context of the power relationships that oppresses them
         • they impose the researchers categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their views and experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power of the sexes
         • She says we need to use methods that allow the researcher to understand women's behavior, attitudes and meanings

3. unstructured interviews

   • advantages
     • rapport and sensitivity
       • this allows the the interviewer to gain a rapport which is more likely to ease and encourage the interviewee to open up
       • labour
         • Used unstructured interviews to to study the language of black American children. he found that they appeared to be tongue tied and linguistically deprived.adopting a more formal relaxed style meant that the child opened up, showing that they were competent speakers
       • they are useful when researching sensitive topics
         • dobash and dobash
           • Used them to study domestic violence. the empathy and encouragement of the interviewer will help the interviewee feel comfortable discussing difficult and personal subjects
     • the interviewee's view
       • due to no set questions this gives the interviewee more freedom and opportunity to speak about what they find important.
       • by allowing them greater freedom it is more likely to produce valid data. similarly the interviewers probing can help formulate and develop the respondents ideas more clearly
       • dean and taylor-gooby
         • in their study of claimants experiences of unemployment, they used unstructured tape recorded interviews, lasting up to 90 minutes with 85 claimants. they said that questions were not put in any order and the wording was adapted to fit the circumstances, questions that were inappropriate were omitted and additional questions were used at the interviewer's discretion
     • checking and understanding
       • there is a danger that the respondent will misunderstand the question or the interviewer will misunderstand the answer
       • unstructured interviews makes it easier for the interviewee and interviewer to check each others meaning
       • the questions can be explained
       • Follow up questions can be used to clarify answers
     • flexibility
       • they are highly flexible as the interviewer is not confined to an interview schedule
       • they can formulae new ideas and hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise
     • exploring unfamiliar topics
       • some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point to develop initial ideas
       • we can start by asking questions we know nothing about as a starting point. this means we can learn as we go along
   • disadvantages
     • practical problems
       • time and sample size
         • they take a long time to conduct as they are an in depth exploration. this limits the number that can be carried out- small sample size- representative?
       • training
         • needs to be more thorough because the interviewer needs to have a background in sociology so they can recognise when a respondent makes a significant sociological point, so they can further it with questioning. - cost
       • interpersonal skills
         • the interviewer needs to have good interpersonal skills to develop a rapport that is essential if they are to gain honesty from the interviewee
     • representativeness
       • the smaller numbers and small sample frame means that is is likely to be unrepresentative - harder to make generalisations
     • reliability
       • they are not reliable because they are not standardised. every interview is unique as they are free to ask relevant questions. this makes it impossible to replicate and check the findings
     • quantification
       • because the Qs are open ended the answers cannot be pre-coded and it is difficult to quantify the numbers. the lack of quantified data means that unstructured interviews are less helpful in establishing a cause and effect relationship and hypothesis testing
     • validity
       • while they are generally seen as providing valid data. critics say that the fact that they involve interaction colours and distorts the info obtained.

4. as a social interaction

   • social interactions can hidner the validity
   • the interviewer bias
     • the interviewer may ask leading questions, this is less likely in structured interviews due to the interview schedule
     • interviews may also consciously or unconsciously influence the answer by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice.
     • the interviewer can also be a source of bias if the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees.
       • oakley
         • admits that being a mother made it difficult to remain detached and neutral when interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth
   • artificiality
     • even the most relaxed unstructured interviews are still an interview: both parties know it is an interview, in which one side takes the initiative and asks the questions. under these artificial conditions, it is doubtful whether truthful answers can be obtained
   • status and power inequalities
     • power differences may affect honesty or willingness to answer. the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data
     • rich
       • shows that when adults interview children, the child's need to please the interviewer will affect their answer
     • gender differences in power can also shape answers and ethnic differences may make the interview difficult.
       • griffin
         • abandoned his interview in favour of using participant observation
     • while interviews can distort data structured interviews may be less succeptible because of the higher levels of control e.g. standard list of re-set Qs
   • cultural differences
     • can undermine validity. there may be a misunderstanding as a result of different meanings given to the same words
     • the cultural gap may also mean that interviewers cannot tell when they are being lied to.
       • Mead
         • her research of adolescents in Samoa had been criticised on the grounds that mead, who couldn't speak the language, that the girls she interviewed deliberately misled her
   • ethical issues
     • due to it being a social interaction the interviewee may feel under pressure. researchers should also gain informed consent and guarantee anonymity and tell them that they can withdraw. interviews on sensitive topics or vulnerable people should not cause psychological harm
   • improving validity
     • researcher should use techniques to gain valid data e.g try to reduce the opps the interviewee has to lie
       • kinsey
         • is interview on sexual behaviour asked questions rapidly giving them little time to think, he also used some Qs to check answers. he also used follow up interviews
     • becker
       • developed an approach in his interview into chicago school teachers where he used aggression, disbelief and playing dumb as ways of extracting sensitive info . however, this requires specialist skill from researchers. and can also be hard to replicate
     • some researcher have made sure that they are culturally and ethnically matched
       • nazroo
         • his survey about the health of british Ems were carried out in the language of the interviewees choice.