Flashcards
Module 5
Cards in this deck (102)
- 1What is the compensation point in photosynthesis?When the volume of oxygen produced from photosynthesis is equal to the volume that's being used in aerobic respiration
- 2What is the balanced symbol equation of photosynthesis?6CO(2) + 6H(2)O -> 6O(2) + c(6)H(12)O(6)
- 3Label chloroplast? (8 labels draw 2 on)
- 4What is the size of a chloroplast? what is the stroma? granum? thykaloids?-2-10um
-liquid which contains enzymes for the LIS
-a stack of thykaloids
-membrane is the site of photosystem and electron transport chain - 5Where does the Light Independent stage take place? where does the light dependent stage take place?-in the stroma
-across the thykaloid membranes - 6What is a photosystem? (antennae complexes)-light harvesting photosynthetic pigments that are arranged in funnel shapes to capture energy held in place my protein complexes
- 7where are photo systems found? what are photosynthetic pigments?-in the thykaloid membrane
-molecules that absorb light energy, each pigment absorbs certain wave lengths and reflects others - 8Name three different pigments giving the colour they appear, absorption peaks and where they are located-chlorophyll a, in the PPRC (form p680 and p700) green-yellow
-chlorophyll b, accessory pigment 500nm and 640nm. blue-green
-carotenoids (carotene & xanthophyll) accessory pigments, orange-yellow - 9how can the pigments be identified and what happens when light is absorbed by chlorophyll a?-Rf value from thin layer chromatography (propane solvent)
-it excite electrons previously associated with Mg - 10how to chloroplasts move about and why?-through cytoplasmic streaming so they can absorb more light
- 11What happens in the light dependant stage of photo synthesis? (brief)-PS1 and PS11 harvest light energy converting it into a flow of electrons to drive the production of ATP and NADP which is a source of energy.
- 12Describe cyclic photophosphorylation-only involves pS1, excited electrons pass through a chain of electron acceptors back to the chlorophyll molecule to which they were lost
-NADP not reduced
-small amounts of ATP made
-photolysis does NOT occur - 13What is the small amount of ATP produced in in cyclic phosphorylation (as well as being used in LIS) used for?-to establish a water potential gradient between the guard cells and surrounding tissues (stomata open)
- 14write the equation of photolysis and where does it occur? and in what stage? where are each of the products used?-LDS, PS11 contains enzyme that splits water in presence of light:
2H(2)O -> 4H+ + 4e- + O(2)
-H+ establishes gradient for ATP synthesis
-e- replaces electrons lost from PS 11
-O(2) diffuses out of stomata
happens on the thylakoid membrane - 15Describe non-cyclic phosphorylation-energy is released as electrons pass between PS1 & PS11 which some is used to pump protons into thylakoid space
-electrons from PS1 and protons are used by Nadp reductase to reduce NADP - 16what is the z scheme referring to?-electrons moving from low to high energy state and back again
- 17what's the difference in electrons between cyclic and non cyclic phosphorylation?-cyclic the electrons cycle back through the electron transport chain but in non cyclic they reduce NADP
- 18what two molecules are used from the LDS in the LIS and how are they used?-ATP and NADP are used directly to fix carbon dioxide
- 19Explain to processes in the calvin cycle-RuBisco (enzyme) combines RuBP (5C molecule) with CO(2) tome unstable 6 carbon intermediate. This breaks down into two 3C molecules which is used to synthesise sugars, amino acids and lipids
- 20Where does the light independent stage occur?In the storm of the chloroplasts
- 21Where is triode phosphate used?in the synthesis of carbs, lipids, amino acids and also recycled to regenerate RuBP
- 22what other molecule synthesises amino and fatty acids?GP glycerate 3-phospahte
- 23What happens when the temperature goes above 25C?-O(2) fits into RuBisco's active site so photorespiration occurs which form toxins for which ATP is required to break down
- 24what are three factors limiting photo synthesis?-temp
-CO(2) CONECNTRATION
-light intensity - 25How does temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis and how?-as temperature increases, so will the rate of photosynthesis up until 25C because enzymes denature and cellular damage occurs at higher temperatures (LIs affected the most)
- 26How does light affect the rate of photosynthesis and what is the effect on GP, RuBP, and TP levels?-as light intensity increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis until it plateaus because another factor is limiting
-if light intensity drops is affects the LDS which means there's less ATP and reduced NADP so RuBP can't be converted into TP and GP cant be converted into TP so GP levels rise whilst the others fall - 27How does CO(2) conc. affect the rate of photosynthesis and what is the effect on GP, RuBP, and TP levels?-as CO(2) concentration increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis until it plateaus because another factor is limiting
-This affects the calvin cycle directly so as TP and GP are made into amino acids and sugars, their levels drop as no more are being formed where RuBP will accumulate and increase as there's less CO(2) to combine with it - 28what is cellular respiration?it is the process of where energy stored in complex organic molecules (e.g. glucose) is used to make ATP
- 29Name 8 things ATP is needed for-exocytosis- change in cytoskeleton
-endocytosis- change in cytoskeleton
-active transport
-movement (motor proteins, cilia etc)
-replication (dna)
-synthesis (proteins, lipids etc)
-activation energy for enzymes (phosphorylation) - 30What is ATP? what is ATP made of and why is it useful?-a phosphorylated nucleotide
-hydrolysis of ATP and ADP that makes energy available in small, manageable amounts - 31how does it differ from combustion?-in combustion the energy is released all at once where ATP allows it to be much more controlled
- 32What is glycolysis? where does it occur?-biochemical pathway occurring in the cytoplasm which converts glucose to pyruvate generating small quantities of ATP and reduced NAD
- 33What happens in glycolysis stage 1?'energy investment stage'
2 molecules of ATP are used to add phosphate groups to glucose (6C) so ATP turns to ADP and glucose becomes glucose 6- phosphate
isomerisation occurs to turn this into fructose 6-phosphate then the second molecule of ATP is used to turn this into hexose 1, 6-biphosphate (high energy molecule) - 34What happens in glycolysis stage 2?'splitting of hexose biphosphate'
hexose 1, 6-biphosphate is unstable and breaks down into two molecules of triode phosphate (TP) - 35What happens in glycolysis stage 3?'oxidation of triose phosphate'
dehydrogenase enzymes remove two hydrogen atoms from each triose phosphate (creating 2 molecules of reduced NAD this makes x2 intermediate compound
substrate level phosphorylation occurs to produce 1 ATP - 36What happens in glycolysis stage 4?'production of pyruvate'
substrate level phosphorylation occurs to produce 1 ATP
the intermediate compound then forms pyruvate (2 molecules) - 37what are the products of glycolysis?x4 ATP (2 net)
x2 redNAD
x2 pyruvate - 38why is glycolysis anaerobic?-it doesn't require oxygen it just needs NAD which is produced by ethanol is yeast and lactic acid in animals
- 39What are the adrenal glands a type of and where are they located?-endocrine tissue and they are located just above each kidney
- 40-what are the two main parts of the adrenal gland?-adrenal cortex (outer capsule)
-adrenal medulla (middle) - 41what are the three layers of the adrenal cortex and what do each secrete? what does the adrenal medulla secrete?-zona glomerulosa -> aldosterone
-zona fasciculata -> gluccocorticoids
-zona reticulis -> cortisol
-adrenaline (where it's produced) - 42What is the role and effect of adrenaline in the body? How is the release of adrenaline triggered?-adrenaline binds to various complementary receptors to bring out many different processes such as:
conversion of glycogen to glucose, pupil dilation, increased heart rate, relaxation of smooth muscle in bronchioles, gut action inhibited, body hair erect
-when the adrenal gland is innervated by a motor neuron from the CNS - 43Give an example of a mineralcorticoid, where it's secreted and what the effect it has?-aldosterone which is secreted from the zona glomerulosa. They balance Na+ and K+ in blood
- 44Give an example of a glucocorticoid, where it's secreted and what the effect it has?-cortisol which is secreted by the zona reticularis and zona fasciculata. These control carbohydrate and protein metabolism in the liver
- 45What is the endocrine part of the pancreas, what cells does it contain and what do they secrete?-The islet of Langerhans
-contains a and b cells which secrete glucagon and insulin respectively - 46Name all the cells in the islet of langerhans?a and b cells
enzyme secreting cells with tubule in centre (exocrine system)
blood capilaries - 47what is the link reaction and the krebs cycle? explain all the steps-The two molecules of pyruvate (from glycolysis) are decarboxylated, oxidised and then combine with a coA which produced 2 molecules of CO(2), 2 molecules of NAD and two molecules of acetyl coA
-krebs cycle starts with acetyl CoA and each acetate group combines with a molecule of ozaloacetate to make citrate (6C), this is then de carboxylated and dehydrogenated to produce CO(2) and NADH & form OC-ketoglutorate (5C) this is then decarboxylated and de hydrogenated again (produces CO(2) and NADH) to form a 4C which changes shape to another 4c and produces ATP, it is then dehydrogenated again to produce FADH and form another 4C which is dehydrogenated once more to produce NADH and oxaloacetate - 48How much CO(2), NADH, FADH, Acetyl CoA and ATP end up being produced in the link cycle? in the krebs cycle? per glucose molecule?-Link reaction: 2xCO(2), 2xNADH,
2x acetyl CoA
-krebs cycle: 6x NADH, 4x CO(2), 2x ATP, 2x FADH - 49Why are the co-enzymes so important in respiration?-NAD and FAD are co enzymes for dehydrogenase enzymes they play a key role in every stage of respiration
-CoA carries acetate molecules made during the link reaction onto the Krebs cycle - 50Including glycolysis, link reaction, and Krebs cycle, how much ATP, NADH, FADH and CO(2) have been produced from a single glucose molecule ?ATP- 2(glycolysis), 0(link), 2(Krebs)
NADH-2(gluycolysis), 2(link), 6(Krebs)
FADH- 0(glycolysis), 0(link), 2(Krebs)
CO(2)-0(glycolysis), 2(link), 4(Krebs) - 51What is oxidative phosphorylation? what does this process involve?The production of ATP in the presence of oxygen via the process of chemiosmosis-electron transport chain, proton gradients and ATP synthase
- 52What is chemiosmosis?-The flow of hydrogen ions across a phospholipid membrane via the transmembrane portion of ATP synthase
- 53What are the six stages of chemiosmosis in the final stage of respiration?1- NADH re-oxidised by NADH deyhydrogenase
2- The H is split into H+ and e-
3- e- are passed along electron carries in the ETC
4- energy is released from the electrons which is used to pump H+ (protons) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (so they accumulate in the inter-membrane space)
5- FAD also contributes electrons but the H+ are not pumped directly through membrane
6-cytochrome oxidase (the final electron carrier) enables oxygen to accept 2 electrons at the end of ETC to combine them with 2H+ (water) - 54what is the evidence for chemiosmosis in respiration?-there's a difference in pH between the matrix and the intermembrane space due to the pumping of protons by complexes in the ETC
-no ATP synthase with the outer membrane removed
-oligomycin blocks the flow of protons so ATP synthase cannot be activated and no ATP made - 55Why can aerobic respiration not occur without oxygen? what needs to happen to NADH?-ETC cannot function and so Krebs cycle and link reaction also stop, the NADH needs to be re-oxidised so glycolysis can continue to produce ATP
- 56What happens in the lactate pathway? What type of animal undergoes this pathway? include balanced symbol equation.-mammals: lactate fermentation is the pathway in mammalian cells to reoxidise NADH. Pyruvate (CH(3)COCOOH), produced in glycolysis, is converted into lactate (CH(3)CHOHCOOH) as NADH gives off it's 2H (re-oxidised by lactate dehydrogenase)
- 57What happens in Ethanol fermentation? what type of species undergo this? include balanced symbol equation.Fungi (such as yeast) use ethanol formation to reoxidise NADH
pyruvate(CH(£3)COCOOH) releases CO(2) as it is decarboxylated by pyruvate decarboxylase to form ethanal (CH(3)CHO) which then undergoes ethanol dehyrogenase (NADH is oxidised which provides 2H to form ethanol (CH(3)CH(2)OH) - 58when measuring for anaerobic respiration in yeast, why is a layer of oil played above the yeast in glucose solution?-The layer of oil restricts the yeast's access to oxygen and respiration becomes anaerobic
- 59What of each of these are involved in the yeast and mammal anaerobic respiration? -enzymes involved -hydrogen acceptor -NAD re-oxidised? -CO(2) produced)? -end productsYeast: -pyruvate decarboxylase and ethanal dehydrogenase
-ethanal is the hydrogen acceptor
-NAD oxidised
-CO(2) produced)
-ethanol and CO(2) end products
Mammals:: - lactate dehydrogenase
-pyruvate is hydrogen acceptor
-NAD oxidised
-CO(2) not produced
-lactate is end product - 60what is the end product of anaerobic respiration in mammals and where/why is it broken down?-Lactate which is transported to the liver in the blood because if it built up in our muscle tissues which would change the pH too much to our enzymes would eventually denature
- 61in yeast cells why is anaerobic respiration faster at producing ATP? what are yeast cells described as because of this?-can be up to 100x faster than oxidative phosphorylation but it used glucose very quickly and will kill the yeast cells if it builds up above 15%
-faculative anaerobes they can survive without oxygen as long as enough glucose is present - 62What are respiratory substrates?-organic substrates that can be used for respiration
- 63What respiratory substrate is used to make to majority of ATP? where is it stored in animals and plants? -comment on it's efficiency-carbohydrates (glucose)
-animals store glucose as glycogen and plants as starch
-they contain substantial amounts of oxygen in addition to carbon and hydrogen so they're converted to ATP less efficiently than some other respiratory substrates - 64When is protein used as a respiratory substrate? How does this occur? comment on its efficiency compared to carbohydrates-in times of starvation, exercise and fasting
-number of hydrogen atoms per molecule is slightly higher than carbs so more ATP is produced from the same mass via oxidative phosphorylation
-amino acids are deaminated and then respired with the hydrocarbon portions entering at various stages of the aerobic pathway - 65When are fats used used as respiratory substrates? How can this occur? comment on its efficiency compared to carbohydrates and proteins?-long hydrocarbon chains so they have many C-H bonds and H atoms then carbs and proteins so release a lot more energy and the glycerol can also be converted to triose phosphate and put into glycolysis
-b oxidation pathway: matrix of mitochondria which produces 2-carbon acetyl groups, NADH and FADH
-the acetyl groups are fed in at the acetyl CoA stage and large numbers of H+ are delivered to ETC by NADH and FADH - 66What's the mean energy value of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins as respiratory substrates?carbs- 15.8KJ/g
lipids- 39.4KJ/g
proteins- 17.0KJ/g - 67How do you work out the respiratory quotient for respiratory substrates and what do the results say?vol. CO(2) produced/vol. O(2) absorbed
takes more oxygen to respire proteins and fats than carbs. RQ of around 1 suggests mostly carbohydrates being used
0.8 suggests proteins
0.7 suggests fats - 68-How can you measure oxygen consumption in respiration?-respirometer measures rate of oxygen consumption by a living organism
-something that'll absorb the CO(2) produced (potassium hydroxide solution) so the total volume decrease will be the oxygen used for respiration (vol/time taken), you can change respiratory substrates, temp an other variables to indicate the level of oxygen consumption taking place
-you have to ensure the same volume is in two different test tubes such as one with wet peas and one with dry peas - 69Explain the cell structure, location, and function of Cardiac muscle cell?Structure: Myogenic (contract by themselves), rows of cells that are connected through intercalated (connected) discs, striated (streaked/striped)
Location: atrial, ventricular and conductive muscle fibres (all in heart)
Function: consists of atrial and ventricular muscle which contracts (conductive muscle fibres that conduct the electrical impulses and control heart beat) to pump the heart without fatigue - 70Explain the cell structure, location, and function of Skeletal muscle cell?Structure: form fibres, multinucleate (more than 1 nucleus per cell), many mitochondria, contain contractile elements (myofibrils) and a cell membrane called sarcolemma, striated
Location: All skeletal muscle
Function: Allow the movement of the skeleton at joints working in antagonistic pairs - 71Explain the cell structure, location, and function of Smooth muscle cell?Structure: Spindle shape, around 500um in length and 5um wide (when relaxed), NOT straited
Location: walls of the intestine, eye iris, artery walls, arterioles and uterus
Function: Different function depending on where they are (eg- iris controls the amount of light, contractions under autonomic nervous system - 72Describe the differences between proteins myosin and actin in myofibrils (muscle contaction)-Actin is a thinner filament of globular sub-units, twisted like a double strand of beads
-myosin is a thicker protein filament, each molecules consists of a tail and two head regions - 73Explain the sliding filament model explaining show skeletal muscle is arranged-skeletal muscle is arranged in bundles of fibres that contain myofibrils, these are sub-divided into functional units called SARCOMERES (between two z lines)
- 74Draw out a sarcomere, including the labelling of z lines, I-band, A-band, H zone. describe how this changes when contracted compared to relaxed and how?-The Actin filament slides into the gaps causing the muscle to shorten and thus move the joint
- 75During muscle contraction how do the bands and z-lines of the sliding filament model change?-Z lines get smaller because the whole sacromere is being pulled shorter from actin filaments sliding between the myosin filaments
-A-band does not change because the myosin doesn't move
-L-band and H-zone also get smaller - 76explain the (mechanism including the chemicals and neuromuscular junction) of muscle contraction longggg answer.1- Impulses srrive at neuromuscular junction which cause vesicles to fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane which releases acetylcholine into the gap
2-Acetylecholine binds to receptors on the muscle fibre membrane (sarcolemma) causing depolorisation
3-depolarisation wave travels down the T system
4- depolarisation of the T-system leads to Ca(2+) release in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (specialised ER)
5- Ca(2+) binds to proteins in the muscle which leads to contraction
mechanism:
1 - 77What is the central nervous system made up of? What is the peripheral nervous system?-grey (billions of unmyelinated neurons) and white (longer myelinated neurons) matter
-sensory and motor neurons (mostly myelinated) carrying impulses into and out of the CNS - 78Describe the functional organisation of the nervous system? Describe the autonomic and somatic routes breifely?Receptors and sensory neurons transmit impulses to the CNS, motor neurons then carry out somatic or autonomic functions
Autonomic: motor neurons carrying impulses to involuntary muscles and glands and self governing (controls the majority of homeostatic mechanisms, largely subconscious)
Somatic: motor neurons transmit impulses to voluntary muscles and mostly myelinated - 79What nervous system is responsible for homeostatic responses and describe further what this contains?Autonomic: split into the parasympathetic (rest and digest) and sympathetic (flight or fight) motor neurons
- 80What nervous system contains parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons? what are examples of what each type is responsible for? what are the neurotransmitter in each type and where is the ganglion located?-Autonomic
Parasympathetic responsible for Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter between the neuron and the effector. ganglion is in the target tissue. reduces heart rate, sleep, relaxation, reduces ventilation, pupil constrction
Sympathetic: noradrenaline is the neurotransmitter between the neuron and the effector, ganglion is just outside the spinal cord. increases heart rate, up-regulated during stress, increased ventilation rate, pupil dilation - 81what are the roles of the cerebrum in the brain?-responsible for conscious thought and emotion, ability to override reflexes, intellect/reasoning/judgement
SPLIT into THREE areas:
Sensory areas: receives impulses directly from receptors
Association areas: compare input with experience to enable appropriate response
Motor areas: sends impulses to effectors - 82what are the roles of the pituitary gland in the brain?-Number of key hormones are released, including antidiurect hormone (ADH), Growth hormone (GH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- 83What is excretion and give three examples? What is egestion?-Removal of metabolic waste such as:
-CO(2) by-product of respiration
-Liver produces nitrogenous waste (eg: Urea) through deaminations as it breaks down excess amino acids
-salts (eg: chlorides, phosphates and sulfates)
-egestion is the elimination of faeces from the body - 84Name the excretory organs for Urea, Salts and Carbon dioxide and how they get their? What does the liver excrete?-Urea: Produced in the liver from the deamination process, nitrogen part of the molecule is combined with CO(2) to create urea which is excreted by the kidneys
-Salts: Skin, sweat contains a range of substances including salts and urea
-CO(2): The lungs, almost every cell respires producing CO(2) as a by-product, it's passed from the cells of respiring tissue into the bloodstream then transported to the lungs (in the form of hydrogencarbonate ions) to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli to be excreted when you breath out
-The liver carries out many metabolic roles and some waste products are passed into bile to be excreted with faeces - 85Write out the process of Carbon dioxide metabolism?CO(2) + H(2)O
CO(2) combines with haemoglobin to form carbamino-haemoglobin
(Carbonic anhydrase)
H(2)O ---> carbonic acid (H(2)CO(3)) --> H+ + HCO(3)- which combines with haemoglobin to form haemoglobinic acid and lowers pH (acidosis) - 86What does ultrafiltration create? What is this?-glomerular filtrate this is the 'stuff' that gets filtered out of the glomerulus and into the bowmans capsule
- 87How is the glomerular filtrate produced/formed? What is this process called?Ultrafiltration
-The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole which creates a high pressure in the glomerulus
-Fenestrations (gaps) in the capillary endothelium (podocytes create gaps in the lining of the bowman's capsule) - 88What are podocytes and where are they found?-epithelial cells with finger like projections found lining the bowman's capsule
- 89What process happens after ultrafiltration? describe how this process works-selective reabsorption: Cells of the proximal convoluted tubule actively transport Na+ into surrounding tissue fluid, Na+ with glucose or amino acids enter these cells from the filtrate through co-transporter proteins
-water flows down a water potential gradient - 90What sort of things get transported out of the glomerulus and into the glomerular filtrate and what will remain?-small inorganic ions such as salt will be transported out and so will glucose, amino acids and a lot of the water (some water will remain)
-blood cells won't as they're too big to squeeze through - 91Label the cross section of the kidneyADD PHOTO
- 92Label the nephronADD PHOTO
- 93Explain the responses that occur in the body when there's a rise in blood glucose concentration?1- Detected by b cells in the islets of Langerhans
2- Insulin is secreted into the blood by b cells
3-Insulin is detected by receptors on liver and muscle cells
4- Liver and muscle cells remove glucose from blood and convert it to glycogen
5- Glucose concentration falls back to normal - 94What is the normal concentration of glucose in the blood?-90mg/100cm^3
-4-6 mmol/dm^3 - 95Explain the responses that occur in the body when there's a fall in blood glucose concentration?1- Fall is detected by a cells in the islets of Langerhans
2- a cells secrete glucagon into the blood
3- Glucagon is detected by receptors on liver cells
4- Liver cells convert glycogen to glucose and release glucose into the blood
5- glucose concentration rises to bring it back to normal - 96what do endocrine glands do?Release hormones into blood due to stimuli where they act as messengers activating specific target organs or tissues
- 97What are the two types of glands in the body? Describe the differences?-Endocrine: secrete hormones directly into blood which transports the hormones around the body so they can reach target cells
-Exocrine: DON'T release hormones, they have ducts (small tubes) which carry their secretions to other places (Saliva in the mouth for example)
The differences are the endocrine secrete hormones whereas exocrine secretes other molecules including enzymes and bile, endocrine has no ducts and exocrine does, the destination of the endocrine is in the blood whereas exocrine is other parts of the body (digestive system for eg) - 98How does a hormone only act on the correct cell?-The hormones are complementary to the correct receptor on the cell. The cells which have the complementary receptor are the target cells and they respond correctly
- 99How to hormones work? what are the two different kinds?-They bring about a response inside the cell when they bind to specific membrane bound receptors.
Protein based: These are polar (so repel phospholipid bi-layer) and cannot pass through the cell membrane so often reactions involve a secondary messenger (such as cyclic AMP) which activates enzymes to alter behaviour or out put of the cell
Steroid hormones: Are lipid soluble hormones which can pass through the cell membrane to interact with other proteins in the cytoplasm and affect the transcription of target genes directly - 100Explain how insulin is secreted and from what cell?-secreted from b cells in the islets of Langerhans
1: The cell membrane has potassium and calcium ion channels, the potassium are usually open so K+ ions flow out
2- Blood glucose conc. rises and the glucose moves into the cell which is then metabolised to produce ATP
3- The ATP closes the potassium ion channels as they're ATP sensitive
4- K+ ions accumulates now on the inside which alters the potential difference to be less negative inside and this change in potential difference opens the calcium ion channels
5- Calcium ions cause the vesicles of insulin to fuse fuse with the cell membrane to release insulin by exocytosis - 101How many amino acids long is insulin?-51
- 102—
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