Relationships

Relationships

1. Rewards and punishments- Feeling rewarded in a relationship can produce positive feelings, and punishing stimuli produces negative feelings. These stimuli are often other people so it becomes a matter of people either making us happy or unhappy. According to operant condition we will repeat any behaviours that will lead to a desirable outcome and avoid behaviours that will lead to undesirable outcomes. Bryne and Clore suggest that we enter a relationship in which the person provides some type of positive reinforcement which thus makes them more attractive,

2. Attraction through Association- As well enjoying the company of people that are associated with a pleasant emotions, we also attracted to people that are associated with pleasant events. We are more inclined to like someone if we meet them when we are happy (holiday,clubbing etc..) as opposed to when we are unhappy. A previously neutral stimulus (someone we had never met and therefore have no feelings for) can become of positive value because of their association with a pleasant event (classical conditioning).

3. AO2 + IDA's

   • Evidence for importance of rewards- The need/satisfaction theory has been supported by evidence presented by Griffit & Guay. An experimenter was asked to evaluate participants on the final piece of a creative task and after this, participants were asked to rate the experimenter. It was found that participants had a higher rating when the experimenter complimented their work and a lowest when criticised.
     • IDA: A problem with this theory is that it does not take into consideration the differences in gender and culture in different countries. For example in some countries, the women are focused on giving rewards and providing for others as there source of gratification as opposed to seeking satisfaction. This therefore shows that the theory is not universal and therefore culturally biased.
   • Facebook use has been analysed by Sheldon et al and has found that the greater FB use is positively correlated with feelings of 'connectedness' and negative indicators of relationship satisfaction 'disocnnectedness'. Those who feel connected are those whose FB use is motivated by their sociaboility and therefore satisfies their needs to communicate with others. Those with feelings of 'disconnectedness' is due to them not being satisfied in face to face interactions and therefore use FB to cope with this.
     • IDA: It has been suggested that the reward/need satisfaction theory can be explained from an evolutionary perspective. Aron et al suggested that this theory evolved in order to drive the focus of ancestors when seeking out individuals to court. Love at first sight is a response that ancestors had to speed up the mating process.
   • Physiological support- Aron found biological to support the theory as he found that in a self report questionnaire, high levels of romantic love correlated with high activity in a particular part of the brain. Intense romantic love was associated with elevated levels of activity in regions of the brain, rich in the neurotransmitter dopamine.

4. AO1

5. How important are rewards?- Cate et al asked 377 individuals to assess their relationships in terms of reward levels and their satisfaction. It was found that rewards were superior in the determination of satisfaction in a relationship which proves that their role of rewardds is very important in the formation and continuation of a relationship.

6. SIMILARITY- BRYNE, CLORE AND SMEATON

   • There are two main factors in the formation of a relationship, the first is seeking out somebody because of their personality and the second is their attitudes.
     • Personalities- Berscheid and Reis found that there seems to be a greater likelihood of attraction between people, when they have similar personalities. Other research has shown that opposites do attract, although there is greater evidence for the positive correlation between similarity in married couples and the success and happiness in their relationship (Caspi and Herbener)
       • A problem with this theory is that Rosenbaum has suggested that more important in the development of relationships is that evidence has been found to support the dissimilarity repulsion theory. This has been tested in different cultures such as Singh & Tan in Singapore and Drigotas in USA. These studies have explained the theory as people being attracted to someone due to their similarities, but as the relationship develops a few dissimilarities can outweigh the many similarities and therefore attraction dissipates.
     • Attitudes- When there is a disagreement in attitudes between two people it's likely that their is attitude alignment, in order for them to become more similar. Research has suggested the couple becoming more similar leads to a more successful relationship.
       • Similarity has been found to be particularly important because of two reasons. Firstly someone being similar to us means they are more likely to like us and therefore less likely to reject us in the formation of a relationship (Condon and Crano). Secondly, someone having similar beliefs and attitudes to us means that they are likely to validate our beliefs and therefore provide a sense of reward.
     • A criticism of this theory is that it is very narrow in the importance of just two factors in relationship development. Yoshida has suggested that there are more important factors such as; economic levels and physical conditions, this was supported by Speakman who found that partners often chose one another due to similar levels body fat.

7. Social Exchange Theory

   • AO1: Thibaut and Kelley- Profit & Loss. This theory is centred around the thought that all social interactions are a series of exchanges where we try to maximise profits and minimise costs. It is expected to gain some profits i.e in a relationship the rewards will hopefully exceed the costs. Rewards include; sex, companionship and being cared for, costs include effort, financial investments and time wasted. Rewards minus costs will give you either a profit or loss. This theory stresses that the commitment to relationships is dependant of the profitability of this outcome.
     • AO2: There is supportive evidence for the social exhange theory. Martz and Rusbult applied the theory to explain why women remain in abusive relationships. They argue that it is because the investments in the relationships, i.e children and financial stability, outweigh the alternatives; not having anywhere else to live, no money and separation from children. In the eyes of the woman this is a profitable outcome and therefore they choose to remain.
     • AO1- Comparison Levels- It is propoosed by Thibaut and Kelley that we develop a comparison level- this is the standard to which we judge our relationships. This is done in order to judge whether one person is better or worse than someone else. Our comparison levels is a product of of our experiences in other relationships as well as general views of what we might expect from a particular exchange. If we predict a potential profit which exceeds our comparison level, we are likely to deem the relationship as worthwhile and fine that person attractive. If the outcome is negative, then we are likely to find the person as less attractive. A concept related to the is comparison level alternatives, in which we weigh up potential increase in rewards in a new partner, minus any cost from ending the current relationship. A new relationship can take place if the profit level is significantly higher.
       • The social exchange theory is reductionist. It focuses on social interactions being based on selfish gains of an individual, i.e recieving gifts and attention. The theory does not take into consideration the notion of fairness between two individuals in a relationship, leading to equity, rather than seeking profits. This suggests that that SET is oversimplified as an explaination for the formation/maintenance of relationships.

8. Equity Theory

   • Messick and Cook explained that the couples strive for a faireness in their relationship a.k.a equity. If inequity is detected then distress ensues. If one partner gives a lot in a relationship and the other partner puts in very little, the other partner becomes dissatisfied in the relationship and this is true for the other partner who takes more than he gives . The greater the inequities the greater the dissatisfaction.
     • Clark and Mills- They disagreed with the claim that all relationships are based on economics. They distinguished between two types of relationship, exchange (business, formal) and communal relationships (friends, romantic) Exchange relationships include keeping track of rewards and costs, whereas communal relationships are based on responding to the needs of a partner. There is an aspect of equity in communal relationships, but partners generally believe that inequities will balance themselves out over time.
   • Equity does not mean equality, as a partner can put in a lot into a relationship and receive varying amounts while still maintaining an equitable relationship. The input/output considered to be fair is relative to each partner. A relationship can still be equitable is a partner who puts in less in a relationship, receives a similar amount in terms of their partners output. an equitable relationship is one where the partners benefits-costs = their partners less their costs. aperception of inequity can be restored by changing the ammount that one partner puts in and the amount we demand or comparing our realtionship to our CL to see if it is worth continuing.
     • Van Yperen and Buunk conducted a longitudnal study in which they studied 259 couples, 86% of which were married. 1)65% of the couples felt equity, 25% of men felt over-benefitted and 25% under benefitted. One year later when couples were asked about their satisfaction, Group 1 had the most satisfaction which shows the importance of equity in a relationship.
   • IDA- Moghaddam states the economic theories only apply to western relationships.In these relationships, it is most prevalent in short term relationships between highly mobile individuals. The short term relationship means that they are unable to fully commit and therefore are very invested in the give and take. This is different in long term relationships as it is much more developed, and this type of relationship is common to traditional societies, were security is of more value than profit.
     • IDA- Therapies have been developed from the economic theories which help unsuccessful marriages. Jacobsen et al looked at the use of Integrated Behavioural Couples Therapy which helped the, to breakdown negative patterns of behaviour. Christensen used this therapy to help 60 distressed couples and found that 2/3 reported a significant improvement in their relationship.

9. The Breakdown of Relationships

   • A01- Lack of skills, a relationship can breakdown to an individual lacking the interpersonal skills to make them attractive. A person lacking in these social skills can therfore be a poor conversationalist, poor at indicating their interest in other people and are therefore, generally unrewarding in their interactions. This makes other people assume that that person in uninterested in relating, so the relationship breaks down before it can even begin.
     • Lack of stimulation, According to the SET we strive for rewards in our relationships for a sense for stimulation. A lack of this can therefore cause a relationship to break down, Baxter et al found that 'boredom' in a relationship was often quoted in a break up. People expet that their should be change and development in a relationship and if they can't gain they might see it as a reason to end it our seek out a new relationship (affair).
       • Maintenance difficulties, A relationship can be put under strain simply because partners are unable to see each other. For example a long distance relationship while in university, Shaver et al. Some romantic relationship are strong enough to endure decreased daily contact but for some this is not the case. The distance becomes overwhelming for the relationships and it therefore breakdowns.
         • One implication of the role of maintenace difficulties on the breakdown of relationships is that there research has found that the strain of maintenance difficulties does not have an effect on the breakdown of relationships. One study found that 70% of students sampled had experienced at least one long distance relationships and 90% a long distance friendship. Our society is very mobile and it is often that we are separated from our friends and family. Therefore, we are be aware of long distance exchanges and therefore are already equipped with the management skills to deal with these separations. This bring into question the role of maintenance in the breakdown of relationships.
     • There is support for the role of lack of skills in the breakdown of the relationships as it can act as an explanation for extramarital affairs. Boekhout demonstrated how an affair is a result of the lack of skills/stimulation is a relationship. Undergraduates who were questioned about reasons that each sex has for infidelity said that men do it due to 'boredom' and dissatisfaction in sex and women do it for 'emotional reasons' (lack of attentiveness etc.) These reasons for infidelity all come under lack of skill which therefore implies that there is conclusive evidence for this factor in the breakdown of relationships.
   • A model of breakdown- Rollie and Duck (1999)
     • AO1- Keeping it personal- The first phase in Rollie and Duck's model of breakdown is the partner becoming distressed about malfunctioning of the relationships. Previous research has shown that inequity can cause distress and therefore may be a factor for brekadown. The distress leads to the intrapsychic process where the individual will brood on their feelings and the problems they perceive in their relationships without confronting their partner. This stage of breakdown can sometimes lead to the end of the relationships without any communication of what went wrong and is often followed by statements of 'lets be friends' and 'I'll keep in touch'. The dyadic process is when the individual finally communicates to their partner what their problems are and how they can progress to the future, in this stage it is possible for preservation of the relationship.
     • A01- Going public- Up to this point, the problems in the relationship have been kept private, but now are expressed over a network of family and friends; who will either take sides or offer support and advice as we enter the social process. In some cases this can actually lead to a more rapid dissolution of the couple as revelations are made about their partners, the end of the relationship leads to an attempt to justify actions. This is particularly important as the individuals must present themselves to others as loyal and trustworthy which are key attributes for any future endeavours; in an attempt to paint their contribution to a failed relationship in a light that is favourable to them. This process of grave dressing means the strategic reinterpretation of view on their partner; in particular certain traits that used to be attractive, now become irresponsible and unattractive. The final resurrection process prepares each partner to redefine themselves and build on past mistakes.

10. Sexual Selection

    • Inter and Intra Sexual Selection
      • Inter- This is where one of the sexes, usually male is able to compete with another in order to win and thus be able to mate. Winning this competition, enables traits that lead to this success to be passed on to offspring. The losers are unable to mate and therefore do not produce offspring.
        • Short term preferences-(mate choice) This is one of the mating strategies of humans. This preference is found to be more prevalent in men as they have evolved a greater desire for casual sex as this allows for them to pass on their genes to a large number of offspring in a short period of time. Females do not have the same evolutionary pressure to pass on their genes and thus have not evolved in the same way as they can sleep with a large number of males but ultimately only get pregnant once, |(Buss, 2007). Another adaptation in men is that they are found to lower their standards in order to spread their genes as much as possible and show a drastic lack of attraction following sex . This is done in order to decrease the amount of time spent with one woman and also ensure a hasty departure,
          • The logic of sexual selection- A positive is that there is evidence t sow the importance in logic in choosing a high quality mate with certain traits. Mate choice does take time and opposite sex has to evolve to suit these preferences . The logic in this comes from the fact no matter what sex you are, it is imperative to have offspring with high genetic quality, therefore mating with unhealthy, overweight and unattractive mate means offspring will be as such and therefore have decreased chances of mating themselves. Vice versa is said for a healthy attractive mating partner.
        • Long term preferences- There is much less difference in terms of evolutionary advantageous between males and females in long term relationships. Both sexes become very invested in the children and therefore are particularly choosy when it comes to partnerS, especially in females where they if a poor mat is chose, valuable resources go to waste. There are three main reasons that women are attracted to men 1) their ability to invest resources in her and her children 2) their ability to physically protect the family 3) they most show promise as parents 4) they must be sufficiently compatible to ensure minimal costs to her and children (2003). Despite this, it does not mean men wioll invest resources in a poor mate, me are more attracted females who will be of positive use to them such as showing signs of of fertility. Buss's study explored sex differences in long term mate choice and found universal trends in males and females preferences.
          • Contradictory to the theory that suggests that female preferences are quite stable through time and dependant on what the evolutionary theory is at that time, there is evidence to suggests that it actually changes throughout the menstrual cycle from Mater and Penton- Voak. Females were found to look for a more feminine man when looking for a long term relationship, on the other hand they would look for a masculine man during the high conception phase of their cycle for a short term relationship. It is thought for the short term relationship a masculine man will suggest higher levels of testosterone which leads to high conception rates, it also is favoured by a highly efficient immune system which is a valuable gene to pass on to offspring. A feminised male in a long term relationship is suggested to show signs of cooperation and kindness in parental care which is favourable in the long run.
          • An evaluative point that is consistent with the sexual selection theory is the preference of males for younger women. Buss's cultural study provided evidence for this as it showed the clear preference for younger women across cultures as youth was an indicator for high fertility. Another hypothesis suggested for the male preference for young women is that they allegedly easy to control which is a preferred attribute.
          • IDA- Gender Bias in short term mating, There is a gender bias in the evolution of short term mating and the one sided nature that the theory suggests. Research supports that it is only males that seemingly have a desire for a variety of sexual partners and having casual sex, however this desire could not have been evolved in the absence of willing female partners. Therefore, there must be some benefits of females having short term relationships . Greiling and Buss suggest that short term relationship can in fact allow females to leave a bad relationship and also produce genetically diverse offspring. Therefore, the sexual selection theory only emphasises advantages of short term mating to males and thus provides a gender biased view of mating behaviour.
            • A problem with the sexual selection theory is that although it suggests that males are attracted to females who signs of fertility the signs of fertility are not obviously visible in humans. In animals 'oestrus' is hown with visible signs and signals that the males can interpret for their fertile cycle. In humans these signs are actually hidden so it is hard to provide research evidence that shows that males are in fact attracted to fertile females. Miller et al's study tries to remedy this in a study looking at lap dancers in the Us at varying stages of menstruation in conjunction with the amount of tips they received. Those dancers in their oestrus stage received twice the amount of tips which is in line with what the sexyual selection theory suggests, however there may be a variety of other factors which caused this and therefore the fertility aspect of the sexual selection theory is actually flawed as there is no conclusive evidence for its presence in mating behaviour of humans.
          • There is a problem of validity in these studies in which they show indicated preferences as opposed to preferences expressed in real life such as Buss's study. However, there have been some real life studies that have been provided to support suggestion of indicated preferences in studies of the sexual selection theory. For example Buss's cultural study in which he looked at marriages in 29 cultures and confirmed that men do indeed seek out younger women =, in fact the men actually divorce current wives and remarry someone much younger.
      • Intra- This is the second type of selection which is based around the preferences that one sex have for certain qualities in the opposite sex i.e being tall. E.g if there is a lot of women who like tall men, then generally there will be an increase in the amount of tall men over time. Therefore, competition arises from the preferences that the opposite sex has. These preferences are usually traits which can be be passed on to offspring and also provide information as to whether the mate will the able to provide protection and support for offspring.