Quiz
Cognitive Psych Lecture/Tute Qs
Questions in this quiz (200)
1Cognition Definition:
- ACognition is the activity of acquiring, organising and using information to enable adaptive, goal-directed behavior
- BCognition is conceived of as a flow of information through information processing devices that encode, store and retrieve symbolic representations of knowledge.
- CIncludes mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, language, reasoning, decision making.
- DAll answers are correct
2The results of Shepard and Metzler?s (1971) mental rotation experiment supported the hypothesis that
- ASymbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.
- BAn analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space.
- CComplex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations.
- DAll answers are correct
3Alan Turing is:
- ATuring’s work inspired subsequent innovations in Artificial Intelligence (AI) – a research programme dedicated to developing intelligent machines, modelled on human cognitive processes. The approach to cognition that developed from this work in AI is referred to as Classical Cognition
- BTuring Test” The Turing Test equates cognition with disembodied linguistic output. For a machine to pass a strong version of the Turing test its programme would need to encode all of the knowledge a human has acquired over a lifetime and it would need to have a procedure for matching any text input with an appropriate response.
- C20th century mathematician, computer science innovator. Computing became a metaphor for cognitive processes.
- DAll of these answers are correct
4Criticisms of the classical cognitive view include:
- Athat it provides no account for how symbols are learned. We are not born knowing about all the different kinds of things that exist in the world and the relationships between them
- BOur conceptual knowledge must be “grounded” in our bodily interactions with the world and our perceptions – things that cause us to feel (sense and perceive)
- CThere are only 3 types of mental representations
- DAll the above
5According to a hierarchical view of mental representation, mental representations are encoded:
- Ain a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations
- Bas a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them
- Cas propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images
- Dat increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images
6Mental representations form a hierarchy:
- A– Sensory-based representations (warm, red)
– Image-based representations (relations between elements)
– Propositional/linguistic representations - BSymbolic representations are “grounded” in sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world
- Crepresentations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent
- Dall answers are correct
- A– Sensory-based representations (warm, red)
7The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:
- AGave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates
- BKevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.
- CThe natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:
- DKiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments
8Classical models of cognition are based on the principle that thinking and reasoning are best understood in terms of:
- AComputations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind
- BThe manipulation of analogue representations in memory
- CReal time dynamic processes situated in a physical context
- DAll of the above
9Rodney Brook's robotics projects are based on which of the following principles?
- AAdaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment
- BBuilding models of cognition from the bottom up
- CThe retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment
- DBoth a "Adaptive" and b "Building" above
10Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?
- AThe testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval
- BThe testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test
- CThe testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation
- DThe testing effect ensures that distance effects perception
11Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?
- ACorrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story
- BRecall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation
- CPeople remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.
- DEven when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory
12The true of learning theories
- ASimple Learning:
Association build up gradually over time - BAttentional Learning
Selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others - COne-Shot/Fast Mapping
Learning by exclusion, based on what is already known (our expectations) - DThey are all true
- ASimple Learning:
13Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?
- AWhen asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- BWhen asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.
- CWhen asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- DWhen warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.
14There are four experimental effects which show us that attention is important for learning
including:- ATrade offs between salience and validity
- BBlocking
- CHighlighting
- DLearning rules of different complexity
- EAll these answers are correct
15A Schema is:
- AA schema is a concept or set of ideas or a framework for representing some aspect of the world. Also called frames, mental sets or scripts but can be generally thought of as a concept.
- BSchemata influence how you interpret new information and play a large role in determining what you pay attention to when learning (i.e., what is valid for your current understanding of the situation).
- CSchema determine what you learn and how you represent that knowledge
- DAll of the above are correct
16The Eriksen Flanker Task demonstrates how:
- AInvoluntary processing of "flanking" stimuli occurs even when attempting to ignore them
- BStimuli falling within spotlight processed automatically
- CImplies some parallel processing of conjunction stimuli
- DAll answers are correct
17The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:
- Aassuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck
- Bassuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features
- Cassuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall
- Dby retrieving memory traces in parallel
18In the Standard Model of Memory Attentional bottleneck:
- Alimits the amount of information that is perceived
- Bis influenced by the fact that sensory limitations prevent all of the details of a scene or an event from being registered in memory
- CAttention, salience, & distraction affect what “gets in” to memory
- DAll of the above
19Sir Frederick Bartlett (1932) Experiment proposed that: Presented British participants with a Native American folk tale called The War of the Ghosts:
- ACultural Bias can inform memory formation
- BIf not recalled, the details gradually are forgotten until only the gist of what occurred remains
- CManipulating prior knowledge of Native Stories influences the consolidation of the memory schema
- DNone of the avove
20Context and memory involves
- AStimuli are made up of a multitude of different features or dimensions that can be used to guide attention (encoding) and retrieval
- BWords and linguistic stimuli
- CMemory Traces (more generally)
Perceptual features, Semantic Meaning, Action - DAll these answers are true
21Consequence of Selective Attention:
- AIt would take you some time to shift your attention to the new diagnostic feature if analysing new categories
- BChildren have a hard time focusing attention on one important thing. Instead, children seem to use all of the features
- CYou can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects
- DAll these answers are correct
22Wade, Garry, Read & Lindsay (2002)
"False Memories: People can remember entire scenes that did not happen" proves that:- AAll of the answers are true
- BCues are data, the schema is a hypothesis which adapts to explain that data
- CProviding a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail
- DThe number of false assertions incorrectly remembered increases across time and prompting
23Misinformation in memory:
- AAll of these answers are true
- BMemory is comprised of a few salient details, but is “knitted together” at retrieval by expectation
- CExpectation can be altered through asking leading questions or presenting people with misinformation
- DOnce misinformation is present, its influence is difficult to remove
24Lewandowsky, Stritzke, Oberauer & Morales (2005) examined the extent to which people resisted false memories and discounted misinformation by querying memory for and beliefs about war-related events in:
- ABecause our expectations affect what we remember, it makes particularly susceptible to misinformation
- BPeople are bad discounting incorrect information even when we know it is false
- CUnless we have a alternative theory (or schema) which explains the incorrect information
- DAll these answers are true
25Nosofsky (1986) Exemplar theory states:
- ASome pairs or collections of attributes tend to co-occur together; other combinations are rare or do not logically occur. The implication of this structure is that we can use knowledge about the category to predict missing information (or infer missing information)
- BIn Exemplar theory, we do have access to all of the members of the category so we compute the distance between the probe item and all of the members of category A and all of the members of category B. Then we add up the distances and choose the category with the smallest overall distance.
Attention: Accentuates differences on attended dimensions and Reduces differences on unattended dimensions - CWhen learning proceeds via feature inference, people are sensitive to the correlations between features. Categorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. Consequently, people are less sensitive to correlations during categorization
- DNone of these are correct
26Expectation plays a role in memory as:
- ABecause memory for detail is poor, people can be influenced by questions which suggests specific expectations
- BProviding a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail
- CIt helps evolve our schemas
- DAll of these answers are true
27Benefits of categorization
- AProvides a means of identification.
- BAllows organization of knowledge. We can respond to single items based on category membership rather than as unique items
- CReduces the complexity of the environment
- DAll these answers are correct
28Self-Terminating Serial Search describes
- AStopping the search when target is found
- BConstant scanning rate predicts 2:1 slope ratio
- COn average, search half the display on target-present trials, all of the display on target-absent trials
- DAll these answers are true
29Shepard, Hovland & Jenkins (1961) study showed that:
- Ashows that category learning difficulty depends on how many different dimensions are used to define the category
- BSelective attention has limited capacity. You can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects
- CNot everyone can access the same features, a vast array of different perceptual features. Not all of these are relevant for categorization
- DNone of these are correct
30Generalization at Multiple Levels
- ATypical:
Instance- The more typical the examples are of the category in the conclusion, the more the conclusion is supported by the premises. Typical instances are more strongly related to the category……and so allow for greater generalization - BTypical Conclusion- Conclusions are supported more by premises that are similar. Generalization is greater to more typical category members
- CSize: More specific conclusions are supported more than less specific conclusions.
- DVariability: The less similar the premises are among themselves, the more they confirm the conclusion
- EAll of these answers are correct
- ATypical:
31Abstract categories refer too
- Aunobservable attributes (e.g., love, doubt, thought)
- Brelational concepts (e.g., enemy or barrier)
- Crules (e.g., island, uncle, or acceleration)
- DAll these answers are correct
32Chin-Parker and Ross (2002) study showed that:
- ACategorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. When the correlation is diagnostic, people learn to use it
- BFactor which determines the influence or weight of a stimulus dimension or attribute on categorization. Categories which require you to pay attention to more dimensions are harder to learn
- CHabituation has used to assess simple visual preferences for particular stimuli from iinfancy. There is amazing flexibility in categorization. Adults can acquire exceedingly complex, non-perceptual categories; children cannot
- DAll of the above are true
33Natural stimuli are comprised of features/dimensions, which allows:
- ADifferent animals to have different strengths
- BDifferent light waves to be focused on by different animals
- CSelective attention can be used to tune into to specific features which are important for differentiating categories. The structure of that world will depend on the perceptions of the agents in that world.
- DNone of these are true
34Which of the following is NOT a primary benefit of forming categories?
- ACategories allow marketing firms to selectively target which products you might like to purchase based on your past purchasing behavior.
- BCategories provide a means for identification.
- CCategories provide a basis for deciding what constitutes appropriate action
- DCategories enable organization and relation of classes of objects and events.
35What mechanism does the exemplar theory have which allows it to reduce cognitive complexity
- ASelective attention
- BIntegral stimulus dimensions.
- CSeparable stimulus dimensions.
- DDistance-based generalization.
36Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that can be drawn from inductive generalization?
- AGeneralization is greater to less specific (i.e., larger categories)
- BGeneralization is greater when the examples are more variable
- CTypical instances are more strongly related to the category and allow for greater generalization than atypical instances
- DGeneralization is greater to other typical category members than to less typical members
37Which of the following is NOT a difference between integral and separable stimulus dimensions?
- ASeparable stimulus dimensions are processed faster than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) filtration categorization condition.
- BIntegral stimulus dimensions are primarily found in basic level categories but separable dimensions are found in subordinate level categories
- CSeparable stimulus dimensions are processed slower than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) correlated categorization condition.
- DIntegral stimulus dimensions can not be selectively attended to in isolation, but separable dimensions can.
38Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?
- AEven when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory
- BRecall alone is not responsible for the persistent influence of misinformation
- CCorrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story
- DPeople remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.
39Simple Learning Theory and Attentional Learning Theory both posit:
- AA: Learning involves not only learning what things are associated…
…but also where to attend - BB: In simple, associative learning models, it’s assumed that it takes time to build up connections between cues and their associates
- CC: Expectations provide hypotheses which we use to:
Explain the thing we’re trying to learn
Evaluate our experiences (which in turn allow us to update our expectations) - DA and B are correct
- AA: Learning involves not only learning what things are associated…
40The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:
- Aassuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck
- Bassuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features
- Cassuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall
- Dby retrieving memory traces in parallel
41ways in which prior knowledge influences our hypotheses include:
- AHolmesian Deduction - Once you eliminate the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth
- BJudicial Exoneration - If one suspect confesses, then we let the other suspect go
- CInference to the best explanation
I have some prior beliefs in a hypothesis, H, which predicts that I should observe some data, D.
If I observe D, then H is supported - DAll these answers are correct
42Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?
- AThe testing effect ensures that distance effects perception
- BThe testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval
- CThe testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test
- DThe testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation
43Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?
- AWhen asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- BWhen asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.
- CWhen asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- DWhen warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.
44In Dunn & Kirsner's (2010) analysis of the Kormoran survivors' interrogation reports, they established whether or not the survivors were lying by:
- Aby presenting survivors with a sequential line-up
- Bby presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall
- Cweighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate
- Ddetermining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.?
45In Shepard and Metzlers's 1971 study they found that:
- AMental images are merely symbolic representations of an object and may not appear the same as they do in real life
- BSome of our cognitive processes are carried out using analogue representations
- CThe time taken to 'manipulate' mental images in our mind takes twice as long as it would to physically manipulate it in real life
- DWe can manipulate an image in our mind in a different manner to how we may physically manipulate a real object
- EThe angle at which the object had to be rotated was inversely proportional to the mean response time to 'same' pairs
46What are the four principles in ethical research that the NHMRC outlines?
- AFairness, Loyalty, Compassion and Empathy
- BRisks, Harm, Discomfort and Inconvenience
- CResearch Integrity and Merit, Respect, Justice and Beneficence
- DResearch Integrity, Distributive Justice, Respect and Harm
47Salience – how much does the cue grab your attention all other things being equal?
- AIn the absence of validity, high salience cues will attract attention
- BLow salience cues will not attract attention
- CUtilization is like validity but concerns how much people will learn about or use a cue on which to base their response.: high validity increases utility
- DAll these answers are correct
48What are the two elements of the ethical research principle Justice?
- AHuman Autonomy and Procedural Distribution
- BVoluntary Decision-Making and Informed consent
- CHarm and Discomfort
- DDistributive Justice and Procedural Justice
49Explanation is Hypothesis Evaluation refers to the idea that:
- AYour expectations are hypotheses that you use to evaluate information in the world
- BOur Experience is Enhanced through Interaction with Design that is Consistent with Expectations
- Ca person’s expectations can be described as perceptual, inductive, and reconstructive biases, as they pertain to perception, learning, and memory, respectively. Bias in this sense means merely that the distribution of expected designs is not uniform — some match expectations better than others
- DAll these answers are true
50Which of the following is NOT correct?
- AA schema is a concept or set of ideas for representing some aspect of the world
- BSchemata are also known as frames, mental sets or scripts
- CHaving a schema can cause information to be reinterpreted or distorted
- DSchemata can be changed when faced with contradictory information
51Bayesian models of abductive reasoning include:
- AYour updated belief should be proportional to your prior belief times the likelihood of the observed event (i.e., how much did your hypothesis actually predict the event?)
(Prior Beliefs x Likelihood of Observed Event) - BBayes’s rule suggests that possible explanations should be combined with the data to update our beliefs in each hypothesis
Data are our observations
Not all explanations are created equal because we have different degrees of prior belief - COccam’s Razor: “The simplest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation. People prefer explanations that explain more data with a minimal number of assumptions.
- DAll these answers are true
- AYour updated belief should be proportional to your prior belief times the likelihood of the observed event (i.e., how much did your hypothesis actually predict the event?)
52Fast Mapping refers to:
- ALearning based on exclusion
- Brapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects
- Can increase in inhibitory connections between neurons
- Da reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons
53The blocking and highlighting procedures are evidence that
- ALearning involves attention
- BLearning is context specific
- CLearning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability
- DLearning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data
54Which of these describes a property of the Rescorla-Wagner model (simple learning theory)?
- AFrequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model
- BThe difference between the predicted and actual outcomes are an important component of the simple learning model
- CThe speed of learning is determined by a parameter in the model
- DAll of these are correct
55With conjunction targets
- ATarget defined by combination of colour and orientation
- BRT increases linearly with display size
- CIncrease in RT is twice as steep for target absent as target present trials
- DAll these answers are true
56Bayes's rule can be phrased as:
- AUpdated beliefs in a hypothesis should be proportional to our prior belief in that hypothesis multiplied by the likelihood that that hypothesis could have generated the observed event
- Bonce you eliminate the impossible whatever remains however improbable must be the truth
- CThe simpliest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation
- DNone of these answers are true
57Learning Involves Attention, meaning:
- AIn the pursuit of some goal, organisms must overcome initial fascination (attention) to salient but irrelevant attributes
- BOrganisms must figure out what is relevant for achieving a particular goal
- CThe nature of selective attention determines the mental representations we form about the world
- DAll these answers are correct
58Problems With FIT
- APop out sometimes depends on complex object properties, not just simple features
- BHigh-level, not low-level properties predict pop out.
- CInconsistent with idea that pop out only occurs at level of simple features
- DAll of these answers are correct
59Which of the following is not one of the 5 key empirical effects that help us to understand generalisation?
- ASelectivity of categorisation
- BTypicality of instances
- CTypicality of generalisation
- DCategory size
- ECategory variability
60Herbert Simon proposed:
- AA Bounded rationality: Humans reason and choose rationally, but only within the constraints imposed by their limited search
and computational capacities. - BB Judgment and decision-making often rests on simplifying heuristics instead of extensive algorithmic processing
- CCSatisficing: “[U]sing experience to construct an expectation of how good a solution we might reasonably achieve, and halting search as soon as a solution is reached that meets the expectation. Expressed more simply, satisficing is a rule of thumb which says ‘pick the first satisfactory alternative’. It’s likely to be useful when there are a large number of alternatives to compare and the problem is such that determining the optimal choice would necessitate comparing all alternatives.
- DD A and C are correct
- AA Bounded rationality: Humans reason and choose rationally, but only within the constraints imposed by their limited search
61Actuarial (a.k.a. statistical) prediction: “Based on a regression analysis, non-smokers are expected to live for 80.5 years whereas smokers are expected to live for 66.3 years.” Clinical prediction says:
- AAll these answers are correct
- BClinical (a.k.a. case) prediction: “Based on intuitions I have developed during interviews with you, I believe you are rehabilitated and should be released from prison.
- CClinical prediction performs very poorly relative to statistical prediction
- DClinical prediction overweights case characteristics and underweights base rates
62Two systems of Heuristic thinking INCLUDE:
- AA System 1: fast, automatic, non conscious
- BB System 2: Reflective, conscious, controlled
- CC Question substitution: Instead of seeking the answer to some complex question, seek the answer to an easier question you believe to be related.
- DA and B are correct
63Improving System 2 of Heuristic thinking intervention:
- AProvide rewards to motivate participants to check their intuitive impressions
- BEnsure that participants are not simultaneously having to perform other kinds of mental effort.
- CIncrease metacognitive difficulty
- DAll these answers are correct
64The three general-purpose heuristics are:
- ARepresentativeness heuristic
- BAffect heuristic
- CAvailability heuristic
- DNone of these are true
65Bias within Representative Heuristic include :
- AAll these answers are true
- BThe hot hand fallacy
- CThe Law Of Small Numbers
- DMisperceptions of randomness
66What can we do about our biases?
- ALearn about them as concepts
- Bwe can learn to recognise situations in which mistakes are likely
- Ceasier to notice biases in others than in oneself
- DAll these answers are true
67Is “fast thinking” synonymous with the use of heuristics
- AYes. Heuristics can only be used unconsciously.
- BNo. Heuristics can also be used consciously.
- CDepends on the context
- DIt's inconclusive
68Feature Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade, 1980) describes
- ARole of attention is to bind features into perceptual compounds
- BEach feature (lines, colours etc.) registered in its own feature map
- CConjunction targets require feature binding, so need focused attention – leads to serial search
- DFeature targets don’t require feature binding, don’t need focused attention – leads to parallel search
- EAll answers are true
69The so-called anchoring heuristic proposes:
- Awhen estimating quantities people start with an intuitive reference point (the ‘anchor’) and make adjustments to it
- BThis was the first study to demonstrate that anchoring worked even when participants believed the anchor to be totally arbitrary
- CThat people's level of expertise influences the base expectations of their answers
- DAll these answers are true
70The recognition heuristic is:
- AIf one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value.
- BEliciting frequencies rather than probabilities
- CNon- anchoring heuristic is the only thing that actually is supported by studies
- DAll answers are true
71Three criticisms of Kahneman’s work
- AKahneman’s biases lack external validity
- BKahneman’s heuristics are vaguely theorized/specified and there has been a lack of formal modelling
- C.Kahneman overstates the problems caused by the computational limitations of our brains
- DAll the above are true
72Which of the following statements is correct?
- AAttentional Learning describes the method of learning by exclusion, based on what we already know
- BAttentional Learning describes how we typically make trade-offs when we draw inferences
- CAttentional Learning describes how selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others
- DAttentional Learning describes how associations build up over time
73Historical origins of attention include:
- A Attentional selection based on simple physical features (location in space, voice, etc.)
- B Meaning requires access to limited capacity channel, only extracted if stimulus is attended
- CBrain's ability to self-regulate input from the environment
- DAll these answers are true
74Sustained Attention can be defined as:
- ARelated to psychological arousal (continuum from drowsy, inattentive to alert, attentive)
- BProblem of vigilance: performance declines over a long watch (radar operators, quality control inspectors, etc.)
- CAll these answers are true
- DNone of these answers are true
75Cherry (1953) demonstrates that:
- ASemantic content not analysed (language, meaning)
- BTranslation is selective (stimuli not all treated equally)
- CNo memory/detail for unattended message despite changes to it
- DAll these answers are true
76The Stroop effect demonstrates
- AAutomaticity is a basis for skill acquisition (reading, driving, playing a musical instrument, etc.)
- BCriteria for automaticity: Fast, parallel, effortless, doesn't require capacity
- CLearned S-R associations
- DAll these answers are correct
77Selection of the Attended Message (follow one message to exclusion of others) is mainly determined by:
- ASource localisation in space important cue
- BBinaural presentation (both ears receive both messages in the same voice)
- CNone of these are true
- DAll these answers are true
78Criticism of Cherry (1953) include
- ACherry only looked at what's remembered in referring to aural stimuli
- BConfounds perception and memory
- CStimuli may be perceived but then forgotten
- DAll these answers are true
79Evidence for Filter Theory (Broadbent, 1958) Cognitive Theory of Attention
- AFilter precedes channel, protects it from overload
- BAll stimuli stored briefly in short term store (STS): stimuli stay for a second, some selected by filter to pass into LC channel
- CRaw acoustic trace, decays quickly if not selected
- DPreferred way to recall info is Ear-by-ear recall had more correct stimuli repetition
80The Failure of Filter Theory stems from
- AA Dear Aunt Jane” experiment (Gray & Wedderburn, 1960)
- BB Moray (1959)
- CC Filter theory explains simple findings, but can't explain semantic processing of unattended stimuli
- DD both B and C are true
81Efficient vs. Inefficient Search was proposed by Wolfe because:
- AMany tasks show intermediate pattern, don’t provide clear evidence of either serial or parallel search
- Bparallel and serial functions look like ends of continuum
- CNo evidence of dichotomous population of search slopes (2 different search types)
- DAll these answers are correct
82Attenuation Model (Treisman, 1961)
- APartially attended stimulus in the LTM is partially activated
- BTwo radios playing simultaneously, filter turns volumes up or down
- CFilter biased by context, message salience
- DAll answers are correct
83Criticism of Early Selection
- ALate selection: Differs in where filter is located, after LTM instead of before LTM
- BComplexity of filter: Needs to respond to semantic context, distinguish related from unrelated stimuli – simpler alternative?
- C LS theory: All stimuli access LTM, not sufficient for awareness
ES theory: LTM activation = conscious awareness - DAll these answers are true
84Late Selection (Norman, 1968) states:
- ABottom-up and top-down selection mechanisms
- BStimuli selection by “pertinence” (relevance to task/behavior)
- CNeed both kinds of activation to get through filter, otherwise fades away
- DAll answers are correct
85Guided Search Theory (Wolfe, 1989) states:
- AInitial parallel stage provides a candidate list of possible targets
Second serial stage checks candidate list for targets - BSimilar targets and distractors lead to large candidate list and inefficient search
- CDissimilar targets and distractors lead to small candidate list and efficient search
- DAll answers are correct
- AInitial parallel stage provides a candidate list of possible targets
86Evidence for Late Selection
- AMcKay (1973) Semantic processing on unattended channel: Recognition biased by previous shadowing task
- BVon Wright, Anderson & Stenman (1975): Conditioned response/activation based acoustics of words,
- CNeither answers are true
- DBoth answers are true
87The difference between Parallel Search For Feature Targets and Conjunction Targets
- AConjuction targets pop out; Feature targets don't
- BConjunction targets don't pop out; Feature targets do
- CAll these answers are correct
- DNone of the above are true
88 Early Selection Theory and Late Selection Theory are different as:
- AAll answers are correct
- Breduced detection accuracy on unattended channel
- C Filter before LTM
- D Semantic activation on unattended channel in the LST
89Early Selection Reply in each theory shows:
- A LS: Semantic activation on unattended channel shown by indirect means
- BES: Doesn't deny weak activation of semantic material on unattended channel. Indirect measures don't show it occurs to the same degree
- CBoth answers are correct
- DNeither answer is correct
90A preattentive process:
- AA.
Is a process of which we are unconscious - BB.
Is a limited capacity process - CC.
Is a process that runs inside focal attention - DD.
Is a process that runs outside of focal attention
- AA.
91Evidence for Serial Search includes:
- ANeither of these answers are true
- BBoth these answers are true
- CSeem to need to focus attention on target to detect it – focus attention on each item in turn
- DConstant scanning rate predicts linear RT/display size function
92Structural and Capacity Theories refer to the ways in which attention can limit performance
- ANeither answers are true
- B Both answers are true
- C Capacity (Resource) Theories: Information processing is mental work
Work requires activation of neural structure
Limited capacity to activate structure - D Structural (Bottleneck) Theories: Some neural structures can only deal with one stimulus at a time
Competition produces processing “bottleneck” (filter theory)
(ES: bottleneck getting into LTM; LS bottleneck getting out)
93Pros and Cons of Capacity Theory (With Hindsight)
- AAll answers are true
- BCan make capacity theories (mathematically) precise using Signal Detection Theory
- CEmphasises divided attention, flexibility of attentional control
- D Value of capacity theory is new experiments it led to
94Attentional Orienting can involve:
- Abottom-up (something captures attention)
- B Natural environment: Shifts in attention can be top-down (decide to shift attention)
- CNone of these answers are true
- D Need both kinds of systems to function
95The dorsal cortical pathway is thought to process information about:
- AA.
The location of stimuli in space - BB.
Information about stimulus identity - CC.
Fine spatial detail - DD.
Colour and texture
- AA.
96Some visual tasks are:
- ASome search targets require attention
- BSome search targets seem to “pop out” from the background
- CAll of the above
- DNone of the above
97Failures of Focused Attention include failing to consider:
- AAll these answers indicate a failure of theories/knowledge gaps of focussed attention
- BVisual search looks at costs of divided (distributed) attention: performance decline with increasing display size is evidence of capacity limitations
- CSituations where there is a benefit not to divide attention: avoid processing distractor stimuli
- DFailing to factor in Limitations of focused attention and involuntary processing of irrelevant stimuli
98Controlled and Automatic Processing Experiment Shiffrin & Schneider (1977):
Search for digit targets in arrays of distractor letters in rapid sequences (or vice versa)
Vary size of target (memory) set: 1-4 items
Vary size of stimulus displays: 1-4 items
Consistent mapping (CM): target and distractor sets were distinct (Performance under CM became automatic with practice (>90%)
Varied mapping (VM): targets on some trials were distractors on others (Subjectively effortless, spontaneous pop-out of targets from text)- AConsistent with the idea that automatic processing is capacity-free, effortless encoding (no need for cognitive resource)
- BSubjectively effortless, spontaneous pop-out of targets from text increased automatic processing
- CNeither of these answers are true
- DBoth answers are true
99Rock and Gutman (1981) study, where overlapping abstract figures were shown, demonstrated that:
- ANone of these answers are true
- BObjects occupy same region of space, attend to one and rate aesthetic appeal; ignore other
- CMemory test: good memory for attended figure, none for unattended figure
- DAll the answers are true
100Tipper (1985) study shows that the Unattended Shape:
- ART to name trumpet is slower if ignored on previous trial
- BMeans ignored shape must have been perceived to produce effect on subsequent trial (cf. late selection
- Cattend to one object and ignore another when both occupy same region of space
- DAll answers are true
101 Duncan (1984): stimuli differing on four attributes: box size, gap side, line slant, dotted or dashed line Flash briefly, ask to report two of the attributes (e.g., line slant, gap side). Demonstrates that:
- AB More accurate if the two attributes belonged to same object than different objects
- BA Evidence that attention operates on whole objects
- CC This study disproved these theories
- DA and B are correct
102Visual Neglect involves:
- AControl of attention involves balance of top-down and bottom-up systems
- BReflexive system orients to new stimuli, voluntary system provides sustained attentional focus
- CFailure to focus and failure to disengage and reorient both found in clinical cases Damage to right parietal lobe
- DAll answers are true
103Classical models of cognition are based on the principle that thinking and reasoning are best understood in terms of:
- AA Computations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind
- BB The manipulation of analogue representations in memory
- CC Real time dynamic processes situated in a physical context
- DD All of the above
104Capacity theories of attention predict that AOCs in dual tasks will show:
- AA.
Tradeoffs only when the capacity demands of both tasks exceed some threshold - BB.
Performance in both tasks will degrade by about the same amount when they are performed together - CC.
Tradeoffs that vary smoothly as a function of the capacity allocated to each task - DD.
A catastrophic decline in performance if the combined capacity demands of the two tasks exceeds the capacity available
- AA.
105Which of the following would be considered a pre-lexical cue for recognising spoken words?
- AA.
Lexical feedback to the phoneme level - BB.
Lateral inhibitory signals - CC.
Transitional probabilities between syllables - DD.
Parallel activation of lexical nodes
- AA.
106Binaural listening tasks are:?
- AA.
Easier than dichotic listening tasks - BB.
Harder than dichotic listening tasks - CC.
About as hard as dichotic listening tasks - DD.
Harder than dichotic listening tasks when the messages are in the same voice but easier when they are in different voices
- AA.
1072 Visual Pathways are:
- AVentral pathway, temporal lobe: form, colour – what pathway
- BDorsal pathway, parietal lobe: direction of motion, spatial location – where pathway Parietal lobe damage disrupts “where” pathway
- CNeither answer is true
- DBoth answers are true
108Neuropsychology of Neglect involves
- ADeficit in processing spatial information
Not blind, but difficulty in making left side of space accessible to conscious awareness - BRight parietal lobe damage leads to left visual field neglect and vice versa
- CBehavioural manifestation: failure to dress left side of body, shave left side of face, etc.
- DAll answers are correct
- ADeficit in processing spatial information
109Mean RTs in the Posner spatial cuing paradigm are:
- AA.
Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli - BB.
Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and about the same for neutrally-cued and miscued stimuli - CC.
About the same for cued stimuli and neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli - DD.
About the same for cued stimuli, neutrally-cued stimuli and miscued stimuli
- AA.
110Symptoms of Neglect: Extinction involves:
- ASimultaneous identification of two stimuli
Unimpaired with only one stimulus - Bleft visual field deficit with two simultaneous stimuli
Perceptual response to one stimulus “extinguishes” response to the other - CLate selection theory: Only one signal can get through filter to consciousness at a time Extinction: Two competing perceptual representations can't co-exist
- DRecognition, identification require activation of neural structures Damaged hemisphere chronically underactive, stimuli don't provide activation they should Effects strongest with activity in other hemisphere (invalid cue, competing stimulus)
- EAll of these answers are correct
- ASimultaneous identification of two stimuli
111In her studies of primate language abilities, Sue Savage-Rumbaugh initially trained two chimps named Austin and Sherman to name objects using abstract symbols called lexigrams. The chimps were rewarded with juice or sweets for correct object-lexigram responses. However, once there were more than two objects to be named the chimps would become confused and were unable to respond accurately. Savage-Rumbaugh concluded from this that:
- AD.
Both B and C above - BC.
The chimps tended to focus on the rewards associated with the lexigrams rather than on the relationship between the lexigrams and their referents - CB.
The chimps were relying on the iconic properties of the lexigrams rather than symbolic reference - DA.
The chimps were able to learn the higher-order relationships between the lexigrams
- AD.
112In perceptual extinction, neglect patients:
- AA.
Show impairment in responding to two weak, near-threshold visual stimuli - BB.
Show impairment in responding to two strong stimuli - CC.
Show impairment in responding to a weak stimulus presented in the left visual field - DD.
Show impairment in responding to a strong stimulus presented in the right visual field
- AA.
113The results of Shepard and Metzler's (1971) mental rotation experiment supported the hypothesis that:
- AB.
An analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space. - BC.
Complex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations - CD.
Both b. and c. above - DA.
Symbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.
- AB.
114Rodney Brook's robotics projects are based on which of the following principles?
- AA.
Adaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment - BB.
Building models of cognition from the bottom up - CC.
The retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment - DD.
Both a and b above
- AA.
115The co-articulation of phonemes during speech production often results in ambiguous input for the listener. According to the TRACE model of spoken word recognition, the ambiguity caused by the co-articulation of phonemes can be resolved by the mechanism of:
- AA.
Parallel activation - BB.
Lateral inhibition - CC.
Lexical feedback - DD.
Segmentation of the speech stream
- AA.
116The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:
- AA.
Gave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates. - BB.
Kevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments. - CC.
Gave(Kevin, Kiss, Julia) where "gave" is the predicate, and "Kevin","Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments. - DD.
Kiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments.
- AA.
117Balint’s Syndrome is:
- ABilateral lesions in parietal and/or occipital cortex
- BInability to focus on individual objects and to see more than one object at a time (Simultanagnosia) – prone to illusory conjunctions
- COccurs even when objects overlap (Object based!)
- DAll answers are correct
118Object-Based Inhibition of Return involves:
- AInhibition of return: cued spatial location tagged as uninteresting, so slower RT there Tagging associated with objects, not just they space they occupy
- Bd
- CNeither answer is true
- DAll answers are correct
119Which of the following is evidence for an object-based theory of attention?
- AA.
RTs are shorter when the stimulus is an identifiable perceptual object than when it is not - BB.
RTs to stimulus objects composed of conjunctions of features are longer than RTs to stimulus objects composed of single features - CC.
RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of an uncued perceptual object than when they are part of a cued object - DD.
RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of a perceptual object to which attention had been attracted by a peripheral cue presented at a long SOA
- AA.
120The main difference between Broadbent?s filter theory and Treisman?s early selection theory is:
- AA.
In Treisman?s theory, messages can be selected based on their meaning - BB.
Treisman?s theory predicts that the word ?tap? will be detected more accurately if it occurs on an attended than unattended channel - CC.
In Treisman?s theory, unattended messages are attenuated rather than blocked - DD.
In Treisman?s theory, there is no switching cost delay in processing an unattended message
- AA.
121Symbolic Learning: involves:
- A• Indexical relationships are crucial to establish the link between a word and its referent
- B• Word reference is often supplemented by pairing the sound of the word with an iconic gesture/images
- C• Iconic relationships between one instance of a word and another (similarity of one word/past exposure to the word in the past) become important to establish reliable word recognition
- DAll of these answers are correct
122According to the dual systems view advocated by Kahneman (2011), and Evans and Stanovich (2013), which of the following is most likely to be handled by System 2?
- AA.
Counting the number of times a basketball is passed around - BB.
Matching a character description with an occupation - CC.
Working out that a person?s face is angry - DD.
Working out the answer to 2 + 2
- AA.
123In inhibition of return:
- AA.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations - BB.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations - CC.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations - DD.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations
- AA.
124According to a hierarchical view of mental representation, mental representations are encoded:
- AA.
in a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations - BB.
as a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them - CC.
as propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images - DD.
at increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images
- AA.
125When the Linda problem was presented to participants with 2 options instead of 8, what happened?
- AA.
Participants rated Linda as being slightly less likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement - BB.
Participants rated Linda as being slightly more likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement - CC.
Performance became a great deal better; a much smaller proportion of participants committed the conjunction fallacy than in the 8-option version of the study - DD.
Results were essentially the same as in the 8-option version of the study
- AA.
126Which of the following is a reason why the testing effect is beneficial for recall?
- AA The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception
- BB The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation
- CC The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval
- DD The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test
127How does the Dual-Route-Cascaded (DRC) computational model of reading account for the interaction between regularity and frequency observed in visual word recognition tasks?
- AA.
The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the non-lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words. - BB.
The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the non-lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words. - CC.
The nodes representing low frequency words in the orthographic lexicon have a lower threshold for activation than those representing high frequency words, giving time for the non-lexical route to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words. - DD.
Both A and C above
- AA.
128The standard model of memory might be able to provide a theory of Bartlett's idea of memory for the details and memory for the gist or schema by assuming that:
- AA assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck
- BB assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features
- CC assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall
- DD by retrieving memory traces in parallel
129Peirce’s three modes of reference includes:
- ASymbolic- Symbolic reference is based on some formal or agreed upon link (social convention)
Symbolic reference holds irrespective of: The similarity in physical characteristics between sign or object (iconic). there is nothing about the sound of the word CAT that resembles cattishness any physical or temporal contiguity between sign and object (index) - B• Indexical- Indexical reference is based on a physical or temporal contiguity (correlation, co-occurrence) between a sign and what it signifies:
• Words can be used indexically when they point directly to their meaning:
• here, there, I, me, you, this, etc.
• Nouns and verbs are initially used indexically in the presence of the thing or action to which they refer - C• Iconic- Iconic reference is based on a physical similarity (resemblance) between the sign and what it signifies.
A portrait or landscape painting relies on the physical similarity between the painting and that which is represented. - DAll these answers are correct
- ASymbolic- Symbolic reference is based on some formal or agreed upon link (social convention)
130Schwarz et al?s study on self-ratings of assertiveness showed that
- AA.
Availability is positively related to ease of processing - BB.
Availability is positively related to the amount of content recalled - CC.
If you?re asked to recall assertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall unassertive behaviours - DD.
If you?re asked to recall unassertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall assertive behaviors
- AA.
131Which of the following would be most likely to increase the magnitude of a cognitive bias?
- AA.
Eliciting frequencies instead of probabilities - BB.
Emphasizing the role of random sampling to participants - CC.
Getting participants to hold a 7-digit number in their head while doing the task - DD.
Printing the questionnaire in a hard-to-read font
- AA.
132Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrated that asking questions in a suggestive way altered recall of a traffic accident in specific ways. Which of the following statements is true?
- AA When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- BB When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.
- CC When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates
- DD When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.
133Which of the following is NOT a conclusion that we can draw from the Johnson & Seifert (1994; Warehouse Fire) experiment?
- AA) People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory
- Bb) Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story
- C(c) Recall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation
- D(d) Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory
134The Dual-Route Model of Reading proposed two procedures (routes) for converting print to sound
- AThe Lexical Route:
For recognising familiar words rapidly on the basis of a stored lexical orthographic representation for the whole word, the whole spelling holistically
Used for familiar words (both regular and irregular)
Necessary for reading irregular words. - BThe Non-lexical Route:
Knowledge of rules for translating letters into sounds
Grapheme-Phoneme-Conversion rules (GPC rules).
For “sounding-out” unfamiliar words.
Phonological Recoding
Irregular words will be ‘regularised’ (i.e., mispronounced) - CBoth answers are correct
- DNeither answer are correct
- AThe Lexical Route:
135Cuing studies with spatial neglect patients have found:
- AA.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the left visual field - BB.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the left visual field - CC.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the right visual field - DD.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the right visual field
- AA.
136In Dunn & Kirsner's (2010) analysis of the Kormoran survivors' interrogation reports, they established whether or not the survivors were lying by:
- A(1) determining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.
- B(2) weighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate
- C(3) by presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall
- D(4) by presenting survivors with a sequential line-up
137Moray?s (1970) study of dichotic signal detection found:
- AA.
Selective attention, divided attention with one target, and divided attention with two targets were all about as hard as each other - BB.
Divided attention was harder than selective attention; divided attention with one target was about as hard as divided attention with two targets - CC.
Divided attention with one target was harder than selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target - DD.
Divided attention with one targets was about as hard as selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target
- AA.
138In the attentional blink paradigm:
- AA.
Performance on the first target is worse if it is followed by a second target that must be processed - BB.
Performance on the second target is worse if the first target is to be ignored - CC.
Performance on the second target is worse if the first target must be processed - DD.
Performance on the second target is better if the first target is masked by an immediately following letter to make it harder to see
- AA.
139Word Reading effects
- AThe Frequency effect
Frequently encountered words are read more quickly than less frequently encountered words - BThe regularity effect
Irregular words are read more slowly than regular words. - CFrequency x Regularity Interaction
Regularity affects low frequency words (pint) more than high frequency words - DAll of the above
- AThe Frequency effect
140Complete these sentences: In a highlight proceducre, the compound cue A&B is first presented along with reward X. In the following phase, A&B are presented again with reward X, along with A&D which are presnted along with reward Y. ?In a final phase, when B&D are presented together...
- Aa.
...the subject tends to make the response which leads to reward Y indicating that cue D has been highlighted by cue A's previous association with response X. - Bb.
...the subject tends to be distracted by highlighted information and chooses response Y because it is more salient - Cc.
...bees waggle to highlight which direction the food source is - Dd.
...the subject chooses response D because A is highlighted by the previous association with B.
- Aa.
141Cherry?s dichotic listening studies suggest that the brain can efficiently select auditory messages by:
- AA.
Their semantic content - BB.
Their location in space - CC.
The language in which they are spoken - DD.
The volume of the speaker?s voice
- AA.
142According to capacity theories of attention, performance limitations in divided attention tasks arise because:
- AA.
There is a limit on the amount of neural structure we can activate to process stimuli - BB.
Stimuli in divided attention tasks compete for the same neural structures - CC.
The semantic analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance - DD.
The sensory analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance
- AA.
143Conditioned galvanic skin response (GSR) studies by Von Wright et al. and others have been interpreted as evidence for a late selection theory of attention. The main finding supporting late selection is
- AA.
A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel - BB.
A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel - CC.
A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel - DD.
A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel
- AA.
144According to the Dual-Route Model of visual word recognition, the lexical route is used for:
- AA.
The rapid recognition of familar regular and irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules - BB.
The rapid recognition of familiar irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules - CC.
The rapid recognition of familiar regular words on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation - DD.
The rapid recognition of familiar regular and irregular words?on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation
- AA.
145S-SR Study involved:
- A• S-SR Wanted to teach Sherman and Austin to communicate symbolically with each other about an object that was not visible.
- B– comprehension (receptive language) rather than on production
– and symbolic reference rather than syntax. - C• Apes can comprehend symbols, but production does not lead spontaneously to comprehension
• In order to function "representationally”, the symbols learned by apes must become decontextualized and freed for use in novel situation - DAll of these answers are true
146In negative priming:
- AA.
RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial - BB.
RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial - CC.
?RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial - DD.
RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial
- AA.
147Criticism of S-SR Chimpanzee Study include:
- A– (The chimps) Had to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with the learning of those names. They needed to be able to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with learning those names.
- B• Teaching the names of objects by association
• Sherman and Austin had great difficulty with this task once there were two or more lexigrams to choose from.
• They were paying attention to the rewards that followed the symbol, not to the object-symbol relationship. - C• Subsequently generalised learning to learning names of new objects in a single trial
- DBehaviourist Skinner- symbolic communication (mere associative learning) with pidgeons.
148A problem with Feature Integration Theory is
- AA.
Sometimes conjunctions of features pop out - BB.
Some tasks show patterns of search intermediate between serial and parallel search - CC.
Some search tasks are better described as efficient and inefficient rather than serial and parallel - DD.
All of the above
- AA.
149Transitional Probabilities can be defined as:
- AThe likelihood (probability) that any given syllable follows another differs within words, and across word boundaries.
- BInfants’ sensitivity to such adjacent transitional probabilities in continuous speech enables them to parse speech.
- CBoth answers are correct
- DNeither answer is correct
150The main advantage of studying visual search using letters and digits as stimuli instead of objects in natural scenes is:
- AA.
It is easier to program letters and digits on a computer - BB.
Skilled readers are familiar with letters and digits, which reduces variability in performance and makes statistical inference easier - CC.
It allows quantification of the overall processing load - DD.
It is easier to control the overall contrast of the stimuli, which is known to have an effect on RT
- AA.
151The regularity x frequency interaction within the Dual-Route-Cascaded Model involves:
- AThe regularity x frequency interaction:
Low frequency irregular words are processed slower in the lexical route
due to low frequency words being coded with higher thresholds of activation.
This gives time for a competing “regularised” pronunciation to be generated by the non-lexical route. - BNeither answer is correct
- CBoth answers are correct
- DHigh frequency irregular words are recognised fast enough in the lexical route to avoid significant interference from the output of the non-lexical route
- AThe regularity x frequency interaction:
152The blocking and highlighting procedures are evidence that:
- A(a) Learning involves attention
- Bb) Learning is context specific
- C(c) Learning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability
- D(d) Learning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data
153Reading a deep alphabetic orthography, like English, orthography requires being able to process three types of words…
- A1). Regular words
cat, spank, cowboy, apple
Follow spelling-sound correspondence rules - B2). Irregular words /Exception words/ inconsistent words
yacht, sew, colonel, pint, what, head
Break the usual spelling-sound rules
Must be recognised on the basis of their unique spelling pattern - C3). Novel words (nonwords)
jusk, lelt, dockel, bunset
Must use the rules, or an analogy to a similar word, to produce a candidate pronunciation - DAll answers are correct
- A1). Regular words
154The 2:1 slope ratio in mean RT found in conjunction search tasks has been taken as evidence for:
- AA.
A serial exhaustive search - BB.
A serial self-terminating search - CC.
A parallel exhaustive search - DD.
A parallel self-terminating search
- AA.
155Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) found that automaticity was acquired when:
- AA.
There was a consistent mapping between target and distractor categories - BB.
There was a varied mapping between target and distractor categories - CC.
People practised the same task for a long time - DD.
There were rewards for correct detections and punishments for incorrect detections
- AA.
156Prosodic cues to word boundaries can be defined as:
- Aregularities in the stress-patterns of their native language.
The stress pattern (metrical rhythm) of a language is one element of the prosody of the language - BThis strong–weak (trochaic) pattern is the opposite to that used in languages such as Polish, in which a weak–strong (iambic) pattern predominates
- CAll languages contain words of both kinds of rhythems , but one pattern typically predominates
- DStress provides a prosodic cue to help infants identify potential words within the speech stream
- Aregularities in the stress-patterns of their native language.
157Vervet monkeys alert the troup to the presence of different kinds of predators using a system of alarm calls. There are three distinct calls; one referencing the presence of a snake, one referencing the presence of a leopard, and one referencing the presence of an eagle. Which of the following observations supports the view that this system of alarm calls is indexical rather than symbolic?
- AC.
The intensity of the calls is associated with the urgency of the threat - BB.
The calls are produced only in the presence of the associated threat - CA.
Each call is associated with a specific behavioural response - DD.
All of the above
- AC.
158Parallel activation of lexical candidates involves:
- AA source of ambiguity in speech is caused by the time it takes for spoken words to unfold
- Bspeech is being evaluated and re-evaluated continuously against numerous potential lexical candidates, activated in parallel.
- CBoth answers are correct
- DNeither answer is correct
159Fast Mapping refers to:
- Aa.
Learning based on exclusion - Bb.
rapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects - Cc.
an increase in inhibitory connections between neurons - Dd.
a reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons
- Aa.
160Which of these describes a property of the simple learning theory described in the lecture?
- AFrequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model
- BGeneralization based on a single observation determines what is learned
- CJudicial exoneration is a good way to describe how the model works
- DThe model should be preferred because it is simple
161Language involves:
- ALaughter, facial expressions, tone of voice (prosody) and gestures all provide paralinguistic cues to meaning
- B– Syntax
• rules for combining words into sentences - C– Word meaning
• symbolic reference - DAll of these answers are correct
162Why is Symbolic Learning had?
- Abecause what determines the meaning of a symbol is not the probability of co-occurrence with its referent (object or event) in time or space.
- Bsymbolic meaning is a complex function of the relationship that a symbol has to other symbols within a symbolic system
- C• Words are defined by their relationship to other words
• Higher-order correlations between words within a grammar begin to matter more than the co-occurrence of a word and its referent in time or space
• Words with similar meanings are often used alternatively, not together
• Words with different meanings tend to be adjacent to one another in sentences.
• The frequency with which specific word combinations are repeated is extremely low, language is on the fly, don’t use standard combinations. - DAll answers are correct
163Phonemic Awareness involves:
- AThis explicit knowledge of the phonemic structure of spoken language is known as phonemic awareness (PA)
- BPA can be distinguished from the implicit knowledge that underpins your ability to recognise spoken words that differ by a single phoneme.
- CBoth answers are correct
- DNeither answer are correct
164Symbolic reference is distinguished from other modes of reference because it is based on:
- AD.
All of the above - BC.
A physical similarity between the sign and the thing signified - CB.
A temporal and/or spatial relationship between the sign and the thing signified - DA.
A socially defined relationship between the sign and the thing signified
- AD.
165Lateral Inhibition of word recognition involves
- ANeither answer is correct
- BBoth answers are correct
- CFor example, while hearing "beetle", TRACE will initially build activation for both "beetle" and "beaker".
However, over time, "beetle" inhibits (suppresses) "beater" - DAs activation accumulates in multiple lexical nodes, the nodes compete via lateral inhibitory mechanisms.
166The sign languages used by communities of deaf people include gestures that resemble the object or action they refer to. Does this feature of sign languages exclude them from being considered true languages?
- AC.
No, because symbolic reference is defined by the interpretation of the sign within a linguistic system, not by whether individual signs within the system retain aspects of iconicity or indexicality. - BA.
Yes, because symbolic reference is defined by all signs within the linguistic system being arbitrarily related to their referents rather than being inconic or indexical - CB.
Yes, because languages must be spoken, not visual-spatial - DD.
No, because sign languages are better thought of as primitive proto-languages
- AC.
167B.F. Skinner trained two pigeons, Jack and Jill, to perform a sequence of behaviours that gave the appearance of symbol use to convey meaning. Skinner argued that the behavior of his trained pigeons was equivalent to Sherman and Austin's performance on the hidden food task. Which of the following observations speaks against Skinner's conclusion?
- AC.
Sherman and Austin used symbolic lexigrams to communicate - BB.
Sherman and Austin named the hidden food on the first trial based on their prior learning of naming and requesting - CA.
Sherman and Austin were highly motivated by food rewards - DD.
Sherman and Austin were trained on each component of the task in sequence
- AC.
168Word Recognition TRACE model involves:
- AThe model includes two lexical-level mechanisms for word recognition.
Lexical feedback
Lateral inhibition - BIt is based on a system of processing units called nodes. Nodes represent elements of information within the system, from the lowest perceptual level of phonetic features, through the phonemic level (for individual speech sounds) and the word level (where nodes represent individual word forms).
- CEach kind of node is organised within a separate layer of the system, with the phonetic features, phonemes, and words constituting separate layers of nodes within the network. Each node has a resting level and a threshold for activation. When the input is consistent with one of the nodes, the activation level of the node rises from its resting state towards its threshold. Nodes within this system are highly interconnected and when a given node reaches threshold it may influence other nodes to which it is connected. An active node can both raise the level of activation of nodes that are consistent with it (excitation) and lower the level of activation of nodes that are inconsistent with it (inhibition). The connections between layers are excitatory. Excitatory activation flows upwards (feed-forward) through the layers of the system from the phonetic feature level to the word level. This is referred to as “bottom-up” activation from the perceptual level. Activation can also flow back down through the system from the word level to the phonetic feature level. This is referred to as feedback, or “top-down” activation. In addition to the excitatory connections between layers, there are also inhibitory connections between nodes within each layer. These connections are known as lateral inhibitory connections. Inhibitory connections enable a node to suppress the activation of a competing node.
- DAll answers are correct
- AThe model includes two lexical-level mechanisms for word recognition.
169The regularity effect in visual word recognition refers to the finding that:
- AA.
Words with regular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., MINT) are recognised more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words with irregular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., PINT). - BB.
Words that are similar in spelling to many other words (e.g., CAT) are recognised more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words that have unusual spelling patterns (e.g., YACHT). - CC.
Words that are high in written frequency are responded to more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words that are low in frequency. - DD.
Words with spellings that are associated with more than one meaning (e.g., BANK) are responded to more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words whose spellings are associated with only one meaning
- AA.
170Word Recognition involves:
- AWord recognition (recognition of the physical forms of words) provides the window through which we access meaning.
- BThis effortlessness is based on the recognition of individual words in the speech stream, or in print.
- CNone of these answers are correct
- DAll these answers are correct
171Lexical access refers to:
- AThe process whereby the memory for a specific word form is located, “opened”, or “activated”
- Blinguistic modalities that are for perceptual word forms (arbitrary signs) that map onto concepts (semantics
- CA mental dictionary
- DAll these answers are correct
172Spoken word recognition involves:
- AAll answers are correct
- BThe ability to segment the speech stream despite “noisy”(i.e., imperfect, variable) input and great variability between speakers begins early in development.
- Cspoken words are perceived as coherent, discrete, events – auditory objects
- DSegmenting the speech stream is a non-trivial task
173What are emotions?
- AAll of these answers are true
- BThe ability to ascribe value, or valence, (i.e., positive or negative) to events in the world
- CValue in this sense refers to an organism’s ability to sense whether events and stimuli in its environment are more or less desirable.
- DThe range of emotions that an organism experiences will reflect the complexity of its specific adaptive niche. For humans, this involves the adaptive demands of physical, sociocultural, and interpersonal contexts
174Hot Cognition involves:
- AAll these answers are correct
- BOne way to think about the interplay between cognition and emotion is to consider emotion as a source of information for cognitive processes.
- CFor example, emotional prosody in language
Provides important information beyond the meaning of the individual words - D• Facial expressions also provide important non-verbal information to the cognitive system
Informs approach and avoidance behaviour
175The Emotional/Cognition Affect Grid – Lang et al
- Aa two dimensional state-space
- BValence
•Positive/pleasant
•Negative/unpleasant
Arousal
•Calm
•Aroused - CNeither answer is correct
- DAll answers are correct
176McLeod et al (1986) Emotional/Cognition study found that:
- Atwo factors were independently varied on the critical trials: the position of the threat term (threat position) and the position of the subsequent visual probe (probe position).
- BThe classic finding using the dot-probe task is that participants who score highly on measures of state or trait anxiety, and clinically anxious patients, show an attentional bias towards threat-related material. Most common explanation is in terms of attentional capture
- CWhile such an attentional bias to threat-related stimuli has been shown to operate rapidly in anxiety, it is evident in depression only when more time is permitted for stimulus processing
- DAll these answers are true
177Collins and Quillian (1969) Semantic network model of semantic knowledge provides taxonomic hierarchy that can provide an efficient mechanism for storing and retrieving semantic information. It is structured by:
- A– Distance between the nodes represents similarity between the items.
- B– Category membership at each level entails a number of properties that are shared by the members of the more specific included categories
- C– This model provided an elegant mechanism for property inheritance and generalization of new knowledge: new facts could be stored with the appropriate category node, and would then automatically be inherited by all subordinate concepts
- DAll answers are true
178Bower’s Semantic Network Theory of Emotion & Cognition explains:
- AAll answers are true
- BMCM and MDM effects.
- CInhibitory connections between opposing emotions.
- DSpreading activation from emotion nodes to associated semantic nodes
179Spreading activation of Emotional Nodes involves
- AAll answers are true
- Bin a processing advantage for stimuli that are related to these primed representations.
- Cthe representations of the primed nodes require less activation for retrieval (‘access’) to occur than do the representations of non-primed nodes,
- Dthe concepts represented by nodes that have been inhibited will be harder to retrieve.
180Mood Congruent Memory (MCM) and Mood Dependent Memory (MDM) differences include:
- AA MCM recall is better if mood at retrieval matches mood at encoding compared to MDM
- BB MDM recall is best when mood and content are congruent (i.e., match) than MCM
- CC MCM recall is best when mood and content are congruent (i.e., match) than MDM
- DD MDM recall is better if mood at retrieval matches mood at encoding compared to MCM
- EC and D are correct
- FA and B are correct
181The mechanism of affective priming helps explain why :
- APositively valenced concepts and memories are inhibited
- BDepressed mood lowers the threshold for associated concepts and events, making them more available for retrieval
- Cthe kinds of thoughts and memories that come to mind when people are in particular emotional states
- DAll these answers are true
182Which feature of McClelland & Elman's TRACE model helps clean up noisy input caused by the co-articulation of phonemes?
- AParallel Activation of Lexical Candidates
- BLexical Feedback
- CLateral Inhibition
- DMetrical Rhythm
183Which of the following was not a criticism of Kahneman's work on Heuristics & Biases?
- AHis Biases lacked external validity.
- BHis theories were too vague, and could be easily exploited post hoc.
- CHe overlooked the computational limitations of the brain.
- DAll of the above were criticisms of Kahneman's work.
184What is NOT an example of the five key empirical effects of categorisation induction?
- ATypicality of Instances
- BTypicality of Induction
- CTypicality of Generalisation
- DCategory Size
- ECategory Variability
185Linda the 'Feminist Bank Teller' was an example used by Tversky & Kahneman (1983) to demonstrate which heuristic?
- AThe Availability Heuristic
- BThe Descriptive Heuristic
- CThe Representative Heuristic
- DThe 'So Called' Anchoring Heuristic
186What are abstract categories based on?
- Aobservable features
relational concepts
rules - Bunobservable features
typicality
rules - Cobservable features
typicality
relational concepts - Dunobservable features
relational concepts
rules
- Aobservable features
187Which of the following is true regarding the study by Smith 1989?
- AOn the standard task 2-3 yr old children tended to categorise based on similarity. On the discriminable task, they tended to put all the circles in the same category. in the extreme task, they tended to use similarity or put each circle in its own category.
Adults use similarity on the discriminable task but one dimensional on the other 2 tasks. - BOn the standard task 2-3 yr old children tended to categorise based on similarity. On the discriminable task, they tended to put all the circles in the same category. In the extreme task, they tended to use similarity or put each circle in its own category.
Adults tended to use one dimensional categorisation on all 3 tasks - COn the discriminable task 2-3 yr old children tended to categorise based on similarity. On the standard task, they tended to put all the circles in the same category. in the extreme task, they tended to use similarity or put each circle in its own category.
Adults tended to use one dimensional grouping on all 3 tasks - DOn the standard task 2-3 yr old children tended to categorise based on similarity. On the discriminable task, they tended to put all the circles in the same category. in the extreme task, they tended to only use similarity
Adults used similarity on standard task but one dimensional on the other 2
- AOn the standard task 2-3 yr old children tended to categorise based on similarity. On the discriminable task, they tended to put all the circles in the same category. in the extreme task, they tended to use similarity or put each circle in its own category.
188What does the exemplar theory state?
- AThat categorisation is based on a list of diagnostic criteria for members of that category
- BThat categorisation is based on a prototype that 'best' represents all the instances of that category (best represents all the category members)
- CAssumes that we have access to all instances of that category that we have experienced and categorisation is based on how well thing we are trying to categorise best fits with the instances of a certain category
- DThat categorisation is based on how much we know about the category
189What did Carmichael, Hogan & Walter's (19320 study on constructive memory show?
- APeople's knowledge about the object's label superseded their memory of the details of the object
- BPeople recalled the details of the object well and the label assigned to it did not influence this
- CPeople estimated a faster speed of the car when the experimenter suggested it had 'smashed' into another car
- DPeople estimated a faster speed of the car when the experimenter suggested it had 'contacted' the other car
190Which of the following is not true?
- AMood and emotions exist independently of each other
- BMoods are low in intensity, diffuse and relatively enduring, whereas emotion is intense and short-lived
- CMood tends to be unconscious, whereas emotion is a consciously available cognitive representation
- DCognition can be used to arouse, reduce and maintain emotion
191Bradley et al.(1992) asked participants to study images and rated them on the dimensions of valence and arousal, they found...
- AImmediate and delayed free recall performance is better for images that are negatively valenced.
- BImmediate and delayed free recall performance is better for images that are high in arousal
- CRecognition memory performance is the same for neutral and emotional images.
- Dboth A and B are correct
192The dimensional theory of emotion suggests...
- AEmotions are states represented on two scales, arousal and valence
- Bthe distribution of emotions on the dimensional spaces are C shaped.
- CThis approach is able to explain complex emotions such as nostalgia and exhilaration
- DBoth A and B are correct
193Which of the following is not a feature of the social robot Leonardo ?
- ALeonardo has an object appraisal system that tags novel objects and elicit subsequent anxiety responses
- BJoint attention allows Leonardo to transfer human responses into emotion towards the novel object.
- CEmphatic mechanism changes the internal affective state of the Leonardo, which triggers long-term memory response with socially referenced emotional information
- DLeonardo is able to analyse human language in terms of prosody and semantic meaning
194The emotional troop task suggests...
- ART is slower in incongruent trials for anxious participants than non-anxious participants
- BThere is an anxious related attentional bias towards emotionally loaded words, that interference with the processing of perceptual features of the words
- CEmotion aroused by anxiety related words elicit mental imagery in participants mind that impedes the perceptual representation of the letter's colors
- DBoth A and B are correct
195Spivey&Dale(2006) 's study using phonologically similar competitor suggests...
- Acognition should be analysed as a continuously dynamic biological processes, not a sequence of logical operations of computer-like symbols.
- BCognition unfolds over time and space, and is inseparable from perceptual and motor processes
- COutcome based measures are better measurements of cognitive processes than eye tracking and computer mouse tracking.
- DBoth A and B is true
196Spivey&Dale(2006) 's study using phonologically similar competitor suggests...
- Acognition should be analysed as a continuously dynamic biological processes, not a sequence of logical operations of computer-like symbols.
- BCognition unfolds over time and space, and is inseparable from perceptual and motor processes
- COutcome based measures are better measurements of cognitive processes than eye tracking and computer mouse tracking.
- DBoth A and B is true
197McCleod et a. (1986) explores the distribution of visual attention in anxious and depressed individuals, which of the following cannot be concluded from this experiment?
- AAttentional bias to threat-related stimuli is modulated by exposure time of the stimuli
- BAnxious people identified location of the dot probe significantly faster when it is presented in the same region as the preceding threat-related word.
- CThe attentional bias happens for both anxious and depressed people, even under the exposure conditions with limited awareness (words are primed / masked)
- DThe pattern of attentional bias is not restricted to verbal stimuli, but also observed with emotional pictures and faces
198Which of the following is NOT true of propositional representations ?
- APropositions are symbolic code representing the relationship among concepts
- BPropositions represents the underlying meaning structure independent of the surface structure of an utterance or an witness event.
- CPropositions is composed of several predicates and an argument
- Da propositional template can express the property of or relationship between semantic elements
199Which of the following is not correct regarding classical cognition?
- Aclassical cognition focuses on pure, disembodied thought processes
- Bthoughts are manipulations of symbols according to syntactic rules
- Ccognition is the use of natural language to process encoded information
- Dcognition involves a large range of mental processes, including attention, memory, reasoning
200Which of the following is FALSE regarding schemas
- AThey influence your interpretation of information
- BThey determine what you attend to
- CThey aren't beneficial for recall
- DThey can lead to distortions in memory
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- What is cognition, Turing test, Mental representations, Standard Model of Memory, Constructive Memory, Memory Expectation and Misinformation Recognition Memory, Memory and Context, Categorisation, Ethical Research Practice, Learning and Knowledge, Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning, Attention, Language, Principles of word recognition, W Recognition, Emotion
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