Fichas
Readings and Authors HIS207 NCSU
Fichas del conjunto (40)
- 1The Legend of SargonAnonymous
Sargon the Great lived in the land of Akkad in Mesopotamia. His supposed biography was
written on a clay tablet in the Sumerian language by an unknown author. It does not survive
intact, but preserves an account of his being put in a basket and placed in a river similar to other
similar stories such as Moses, Romulus and Remus, as well as Cyrus the Great. Sargon was
appointed a cupbearer of Ur-Zababa, the king of Kish. Eventually he overthrew the king and
seized power for himself in 2270 BCE, becoming the king of Kish. He went on to conquer the
first Empire in history. - 2A Lamentation over the Destruction of UrAnonymous
The Sumerian city of Ur faded into obscurity following the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The
Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur is part of a Mesopotamian poetic genre, laments, that
reflects the general pessimistic attitude of the region and its peoples. The text is written in the
Sumerian language by an unknown author. Similar lamentations are known from other
Mesopotamian cities as well as from early Jewish scriptures (e.g. the Book of Lamentations).
The Lamentation is written in the voice of the patron deity of Ur, Nanna (Sin in Akkadian), who
begs the other gods to spare her city. - 3(Selections from) The Code of HammurabiAnonymous
(Hammurabi)
Around 1772 BCE, Hammurabi, the king of Babylon, ordered the laws of his city recorded and
displayed on a stele as a demonstration to the gods that he was performing his duties. This law
code is the earliest that survives intact, although fragments from earlier ones are known. The
stele was found in modern-day Iran (ancient Elam) where it was taken as a war prize following
an attack in Babylon in the 12th century BCE. In the text, the exact meanings of awêlum and
mushkênum are unclear and have been left untranslated. Awêlum literally translates as ‘man’,
but in different contexts can mean any male person (including slaves), a free man, a landowner,
or a noble. Mushkênum translates as ‘commoner’ in other Semitic languages, and here is
clearly inferior to an awêlum. - 4Life without Ma’atAnonymous
Ma’at was the Egyptian concept of truth, order, stability, harmony, wisdom, and justice. It was
closely related to the cycle of the Nile River, which provided stability for Egypt. Unlike
Mesopotamian culture, which was in a perpetual state of chaos and had a pessimistic outlook,
Egyptian culture valued ma’at. The importance of this concept to the Egyptians is clearly
demonstrated in periods when stability was lost. This excerpt comes from a larger poem known
as A Dispute between a Man and his Ba. The poem is written in the voice of a man who has lost
any hope for this life and is intent on committing suicide, which his ba (soul) attempts stop him
from doing. - 5The Amarna LettersAnonymous
(Other peoples and the pharoah)
The Amarna Letters are a collection of documents that came from an Egyptian royal storehouse
in the city of Akhetaten (modern el-Amarna). They are written in Akkadian, which served as a
lingua franca at the time. Many of the letters are fragmentary. They are mostly letters from
other peoples written to the pharaoh during the New Kingdom Period when Egypt controlled an
empire. These letters reveal the political machinations and conflicts between the Egyptians,
Hittites, and various vassal states that existed between them in Canaan and Syria. - 6The Victory of Ramesses at QadeshAnonymous
(Ramesses II)
The Battle of Qadesh is the earliest battle in history for which any details survive. Qadesh was a
city on the border of Canaan and Syria, and thus of great strategic value to both the Egyptians
and Hittites. The city traded hands several time. In 1274 BCE, the pharaoh Ramesses II the
Great led an army north to take the city, while the Hittite king Muwattallis raised armies to stop
the Egyptians. This account was recorded by Ramesses on temple walls, recording a great
victory for which he was personally responsible. Brief Hittite accounts also survive that claim
the Battle of Qadesh was a Hittite victory. - 7The Report of WenamunAnonymous
The Report of Wenamun is a story that records the adventures of an Egyptian official in Canaan
in the period after the collapse of Egyptian domination in the region following the end of the
Bronze Age. It was once believed that the story was a genuine historical account written,
perhaps by Wenamun himself. However, scholars now believe that it is a later work of historical
fiction by an unknown author. Nevertheless, it seems to accurately describe the conditions of the
loss of Egyptian control in Canaan in the period it purports to describe. Wenamun must contend
with hostile local leaders, storms, and pirates, amongst other difficulties, as he attempts to
obtain timber from Lebanon. Unfortunately, the story does not survive in its complete form. - 8ExodusAnonymous
(traditionally attributed to Moses)
The Exodus is the second book of the Torah, Jewish scriptures that are traditionally attributed to
Moses. It recounts the story of the escape of the Hebrews from Egypt to the Promised Land of
Canaan. Dating of the story is difficult, although Ramesses II (1303-1213 BCE) has often been
suggested as the unnamed pharaoh. Historians have generally assigned a later date to its
composition, variously assigned to the time of the Divided Monarchy or the Babylonian
Captivity. The story is likely based on older oral tradition and was continuously edited even
after it was written down. Notice the similarities of Moses’ story of being placed in a basket with
the Legend of Sargon. - 9JobAnonymous
The Book of Job was likely written sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE and is part of
the Hebrew scriptures. The book describes the trials of Job, a God-fearing man, and his
reaction to them. It is Satan, literally ‘the accuser’, who, with the permission of God, destroys
Job’s life in order to test his faith. Important aspects of early Judaism are reflected including
the idea of reward and punishment in this life, and Satan as a non-evil entity. The book was
written at a time when Judaism was undergoing changes due to Zoroastrian influences after the
Babylonian Captivity and was part of a debate over ideas of the afterlife, evangelism, sin, evil,
and the nature of God. This debate can be seen in Ecclesiastes, Jonah, Esther, Nehemiah, and
other books. - 10Sennacherib’s Invasion of the WestAnonymous
In 701 BCE, Sennacherib, the king of Assyria, faced a widespread rebellion of vassal states in the
regions of Syria and Canaan. As a result, he led a massive campaign in the region and put many
of the rebels down before marching towards the city of Jerusalem, the capital of the kingdom of
Judah and home to king Hezekiah. The account was displayed in Assyrian royal palace in
Ninevah, being written in Akkadian on a large clay prism. It survives virtually intact. The text
recounts Sennacherib’s success in putting down the Western rebels and forcing Hezekiah to
submit. Compare Sennacherib’s account with that preserved in Jewish scriptures below. - 11Hezekiah’s War with SennacheribAnonymous
(in the Second book of Kings)
The story of Sennacherib’s invasion is told in the Second Book of Kings. The story seems to
comprise two (or perhaps three) different accounts that have been combined into a single, if
somewhat unclear, narrative. The first portion seems to generally agree with the Assyrian
account. However, the second portion is far more detailed and hostile. Not only does it preserve
a dialogue between Assyrian and Judaean messengers, it also describes how God saved
Jerusalem by completely destroying Sennacherib’s army. The place where the two stories are
joined is noted in the text. Compare the Jewish account with that of Sennacherib. - 12The Rise of the Persian EmpireHerodotus
Herodotus is known as the Father of History, writing in the late 5th century. Although earlier
small historical monographs had been written, Herodotus greatly expanded the genre and giving
rise to many subsequent writers. He was from the city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, but
travelled a great deal, including time in Athens, Tarentum (in Italy), and perhaps even Egypt.
His major source seems to have been the priests of the Oracle of Delphi, which served as a
gathering point for the peoples of Greece. Herodotus mixed a great deal of mythology into his
work, although the gods do not play an active role as they had in the poems of Homer. The
subject of his Histories was the Persian Wars, the conflicts between the Greeks and Persian
Empire, and the events leading up to them. He sought to discover how such a small people
managed to resist the might of the most powerful empire of the day. In this selection, Herodotus
describes the rise to power of Cyrus the Great, who founded the Persian Empire. He also delves
into an ethnographic description of Persian religion and customs, sometimes relating
questionable assertions. - 13The IliadHomer
According to legend, Homer was a blind poet from the Ionian region of Asian Minor. He was,
and still is, considered the greatest Greek poet in history. Modern scholars generally believe
that he lived in the 8th or 7th century BCE, and that he composed the Iliad and Odyssey into their
final forms and wrote them down. Homer’s poems were likely based on older oral traditions,
seemingly preserving and blending aspects of Dark Age and earlier Greek/Mycenaean culture.
Homer’s works shaped Greek history for centuries to come, becoming models for Greek culture,
religion, and society. Alexander the Great was said to have slept with a copy of the Iliad under
his pillow. The Iliad and the Odyssey show a great number of similarities with Mesopotamian
epic poems such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, and were likely inspired by Eastern poetic styles by
way of the peoples of Asia Minor. The Iliad describes the Trojan War, when the Greeks
[Achaeans] attacked the city of Troy when the Trojan prince absconded with the Spartan queen
Helen. Throughout the poem, heroes and gods contend with each other, with the dispute
between Achilles and Agamemnon forming the core conflict. This selection is an abridged form
of the poem. - 14OdysseyHomer
The Odyssey is the story of the Greek hero Odysseus’ journey to return home after the events of
the Trojan War. Odysseus was known as the cleverest of the Greek heroes, a talent that served
him well throughout his adventures. In this selection, Odysseus describes his adventures on the
island of the Cyclopes. - 15The Polis of the SpartansXenophon
Xenophon was a Greek historian who wrote in the 4th century BCE. He saw himself as a
successor to Thucydides, and sought to chronicle the history of his own day. Xenophon was an
Athenian who served as a mercenary for a Persian usurper. When the usurper was killed,
Xenophon and ten thousand other Greek mercenaries were forced to fight their way out of Persia
back to Greece. He was later exiled from Athens and lived near Sparta. Among his historical
works, he also recorded the sayings of Socrates, works on hunting, horsemanship, and an
account of the Spartan constitution. Xenophon was among a group of Athenian elites who held
the Spartan constitution in high regard, admiring it for its stability. Here, he describes the
Spartan military and social system which he saw as the basis for Spartan success. - 16The Polis of the AtheniansThe Old Oligarch
The Polis of the Athenians is a work that describes Athenian society. The work was found
among the works of Xenophon and was attributed to him by ancient and medieval copyists.
However, scholars have determined that Xenophon was not the author, although the author was
Athenian, and the work dated from some time in the late 5th century BCE. The author is known
as the Old Oligarch given his hostility to the Athenian democracy. The author sees the
democratic environment of Athens as hostile to aristocrats like himself in order to prevent the
rich and powerful from dominating the state. Nevertheless, he notes the strengths of the
Athenian state along with its faults. - 17The Battle of ThermopylaeHerodotus
In this selection, the Battle of Thermopylae, during
the invasion of Xerxes, is described. Here, a small Greek force led by 300 Spartans defended a
small pass against Xerxes’ massive army. - 18Melian DialogueThucydides
Thucydides was an Athenian historian who wrote in the late 5th century BCE. He wrote a history
of the Peloponnesian War, which he briefly served in as an admiral. After failing to successfully
defend an allied city from Spartan assault, Thucydides fell victim to his political opponents and
was exiled from Athens. He drew on his own experiences and personal contacts to write his
history. Unlike Herodotus, Thucydides advocated a careful adherence to verifiable facts with
little attention paid to religious matters or explanations. His history was incomplete at the time
of his death, ending in the middle of a sentence. Thucydides sought to explain how Athens, with
its greater resources, lost a war against Sparta it should have won. A common theme is the
overbearing nature of the Athenians, especially in regard to weaker peoples, which is reflected
in this selection where the Athenians have attacked the small neutral island of Melos for refusing
to become their allies. - 19LysistrataAristophanes
Aristophanes was the preeminent comedic playwright in Athens in the late 5th and early 4th
centuries BCE. He wrote around forty plays, although only eleven survive, some of which he
directed himself. Aristophanes included a great many contemporary events and people in his
plays. Socrates is mocked in the Clouds, the Athenian politician Cleon is a target in several
plays, and the Peloponnesian War is also central to a few plays. Aristophanes is renowned for
his ability to capture Athenian society of his day and is an invaluable source for our knowledge
of the peoples of Athens. Often his comedy is crude and blunt, including foul language as well as
scatological and sexual humor. In the Lysistrata, Aristophanes delves into gender issues (as he
also does in the Assemblywomen), suggesting that Athens was so poorly led that it could be
better run by women. In the play, Lysistrata organizes a sex strike among the women in order to
force the cities of Greece to make peace and end the destructive war. - 20Apology of SocratesPlato
Socrates is often considered the greatest Greek philosopher. He taught students in Athens in the
late 5th century for which he did not charge money. His most fundamental teaching was the
belief that everything should be questioned. He believed that there was no such thing as a
conclusion. If one believed they had come to a conclusion, they should start their questioning
over in an effort to verify or refute it. Socrates was known to engage anyone who thought they
knew anything in a debate, in which he would make the person seem foolish. In the later years of
the Peloponnesian War, Socrates came into conflict with the Athenian democracy and was put
on trial for impiety and corrupting the youth of the city. Here is Socrates’ Apology (or defense
speech). In addition to refuting the charges brought against him, he also makes an argument of
the punishment he believed he should receive. Unfortunately, Socrates never wrote anything
down and we are reliant on others for his teachings and beliefs. This version of his apology was
written by his student Plato, although another version is recorded by Xenophon. - 21Allegory of the CavePlato
Plato was an Athenian philosopher who wrote in the early 4th century BCE in the aftermath of
Athens’ loss in the Peloponnesian War. He was a student of Socrates. Plato often used Socrates
as a character in his own philosophical writings, as in this selection drawn from the Republic.
However, the character of Socrates is often made to reflect Plato’s own philosophical ideas,
which were quite different. In this passage, Plato describes the way in which philosophers
differed from the rest of society. They were able to see higher truths. He used this conclusion to
argue elsewhere in the Republic that states should be led by philosopher-kings, who were the
only members of society able to rule well. Plato was quite resentful over the death of his
teacher, Socrates, which is reflected in his description of peoples’ violent reaction to the truth
outside the cave. - 22Life of AlexanderPlutarch
Plutarch was a Greek writer (including history, biography, and rhetoric) in the 1st and 2nd
centuries CE, during the height of the Roman Empire. Although he was a Roman citizen, he was
not involved in Roman politics. He did participate in the affairs of his home time of Chaeronea.
He was also the head priest at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, site of the preeminent oracle of the
ancient world. Plutarch’s most well-known surviving work is the Parallel Lives, which were
pairs of biographies of Romans and Greeks. He paired individuals (one Greek and one Roman)
by what he saw as their defining characteristics. Like Suetonius, Plutarch intended to try to
convey a nuanced picture of individual people as opposed to providing a comprehensive
historical narrative. In this passage from the Life of Alexander, Plutarch describes what he sees
as Alexander’s intentions in the East, bringing civilization to the barbarians he had conquered.
He sees Alexander as far more than an ordinary conqueror, but someone who would reshape the
world. - 23Histories of Alexander the GreatQ. Curtius Rufus
Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian who wrote in the 1st century CE. Little is known
of his life, although he may be the same Curtius Rufus mentioned by Tacitus and Pliny the
Younger as a senator who rose to high office from very humble origins (perhaps being a son of a
gladiator). The first two books of his Histories of Alexander the Great are lost, but the
remaining eight survive nearly complete. Throughout his work, Curtius Rufus is fascinated with
the negative aspects of Alexander’s personality and the negative impact of power on him. Such a
view may be a partial commentary on Roman emperors such as Caligula, who was particularly
cruel and likely insane. Alexander the Great was a very popular topic among Roman writers,
often portraying him in a more Roman fashion than Greek. In this passage, Curtius Rufus
describes the decline of Alexander’s personality. - 24Theories of the Circumference of the EarthCleomedes
Cleomedes was a Greek astronomer. He likely lived in the 1st century CE, although dates have
been suggested as late as the 4th century. Little else is known of his life. Cleomedes’ surviving
work, On the Circular Motion of the Celestial Bodies, is essentially an astronomy textbook.
While not always clearly written, the work preserves quotations and descriptions of Hellenistic
astronomical works that do not otherwise survive. In this passage, Cleomedes describes the
attempts to measure the circumference of the Earth by Posidonius (who calculates a figure of
about 23,490 miles) and Eratosthenes (who calculates a figure of about 24,469 miles). Today
the circumference of the Earth is measured at around 24,901 miles. (The measurement is not
precise due to the rotation of the planet, which causes it to bulge at the equator.) - 25The Founding of RomeLivy
Livy was a Roman historian from Patavium (modern Padua) who wrote in the late 1st century
BCE and the first decade of the 1st century CE. Livy was a professional historian and was not
involved in public life. He wrote in the time of Augustus, who became his patron and supporter
as part of his general support of literature and the arts. His history, called Ab Urbe Condita
(From the Founding of the City), was intended to give an account of Roman history from Rome’s
foundation to his own day. When completed, it included 142 books, of which 35 survive today.
Livy’s work is exemplary history, intended to provide good and bad examples for ‘modern’
Romans of his day. He chronicles what made the Romans great as well as the instances where
they fell short of their full potential. Although Livy falls short of modern historical standards, we
are often left in the dark for those periods where his narrative is lost. He relied on Roman and
Greek historians that stretched back to the late 3rd centuries, but most often used later sources
from the early 1st century BCE. In this selection, Livy describes the most common story of
Rome’s foundation. - 26The Founding of RomeDionysius of Halicarnassus
Dionysius was a Greek historian from the city of Halicarnassus in southwestern Asia Minor. He
wrote in the late 1st century BCE and the first decade of the 1st century CE, and was a
contemporary of Livy. Dionysius wrote a number of works on history, historiography, and
rhetoric (including a scathing critique of Thucydides). His Roman Antiquities was reflects a
common aspect of ancient history; it did not matter so much what you wrote as how you wrote it.
Archaic Roman history offered Dionysius an opportunity to exercise his rhetorical abilities,
especially in the numerous speeches included in it. In addition, Dionysius argued that the
Roman culture and society was, at its root, Greek. Like Livy, Dionysius used Roman and Greek
sources that stretched back centuries, but usually he relied on later works. In this selection,
Dionysius recounts the many different Greek and Roman accounts, which were often
contradictory, concerning the foundation of Rome. - 27Heroes of Early RomeDionysius of Halicarnassus
For a description of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and his historical work, see page 115. In this
selection, Dionysius describes the invasion of the Etruscan king Lars Porsena, who was
attempting to put Tarquin the Proud back on the Roman throne. The passage contains two
spectacular actions by Roman heroes that would be praised by later Romans. - 28The Constitution of the RomansPolybius
Polybius was a Greek politician and historian who wrote in the middle of the 2nd century BCE.
He was from the city of Megalopolis in the Peloponnesus and the son of a prominent politician.
In 170, he was elected hipparch (vice president) of the Achaean League, a coalition of Greek
cities. The Achaean League was a strong supporter of the Romans in their wars in the East, but
tried to stay neutral in the Third Macedonian, eliciting suspicion from the Romans. In 167, the
Romans demanded 1,000 Achaean hostages, among them Polybius. He lived in Rome for the
next seventeen years, becoming well acquainted with all things Roman, including developing a
close friend of Scipio Aemilianus, one of the most prominent men of the 2nd century. After the
destruction of Corinth in 146, Polybius worked on behalf of the Romans in Greece. He
composed several historical works, although only his Histories survive. The Histories are
intended to be universal (combining the history of the western and eastern Mediterranean), and
pragmatic (useful for political and military leaders). The work attempts to explain how the
Romans came to dominate the Mediterranean and familiarize Polybius’ fellow Greeks with the
Romans. In this selection, Polybius describes the nature of the Roman constitution, which he
saw as the basis for Roman success. - 29On Italian ManpowerPolybius
In this selection, Polybius
gives an account of the manpower resources of the Romans and their Italian allies on the eve of
the Second Punic War, which he contrasts with the army that Hannibal brought into Italy. - 30T. Quinctius Flamininus at the Isthmian GamesLivy
In this passage, Livy describes
the aftermath of the second war between the Romans and Macedonians in the early 2nd century
BCE. The Greeks expected the Romans to establish their own control in Greece, but were
surprised by the decree of Titus Quinctius Flamininus at the Isthmian Games. The Isthmian
Games were one of four sets of games that also included the Olympics. - 31The Aetolian SurrenderPolybius
In this selection, Polybius
describes negotiations between the Aetolian League, a Greek confederation, and the Romans
made difficult by inherent cultural differences and misconceptions. The Aetolians had joined in
a war against the Romans. - 32The Decline of the RepublicSallust
Sallust was a Roman politician and historian who wrote in the 1st century BCE. He was involved
in the political disputes of the Late Republic, being an ardent support of Caesar against Pompey
and the Senate. In 50, he was expelled from the Senate, but was reinstated by Caesar shortly
thereafter. Caesar used Sallust for several missions during the Civil Wars, ultimately appointing
him as a proconsular governor of Africa and Numidia. After his time in office, Sallust was tried
for extortion. Although acquitted (probably thanks to Caesar), he retired from public life and,
thanks to the fortune he had amassed, lived a comfortable life writing history. Throughout his
works, Sallust displays a bias against the Senate and the nobility that he saw as playing a major
role in the decline of the Republic. He firmly believed that the Republic was in decline. He
connected this decline with the rise of Rome and their vast empire, which he saw as a source of
corruption. These selections are from his War with Jugurtha and War with Catiline. Here he
gives an account of Roman decline. - 33The Dictatorship of SullaAppian
Appian was a Greek historian from Alexandria in Egypt who wrote in the 2nd century CE. He
was a Roman citizen during the height of the Empire, becoming a lawyer in Rome. Sometime
between 147 and 161, Appian was given the (likely honorary) office of procurator by the
emperor Marcus Aurelius thanks to the recommendation of his friend Cornelius Fronto.
Appian’s Roman History covers the history of Rome from its foundation to the end of the
Republic, although much of it is lost. It is uniquely organized by geography or theme (e.g. the
Wars in Spain or the Civil Wars). There are a number of problems with this work; including
factual errors, a biased viewpoint, and the fact that Appian lived long after the events he
describes. Nonetheless, Appian’s books on the Civil Wars are the only surviving narrative of the
period and are thus invaluable. His portrayal of Sulla is a mixture of criticism for his tyrannical
seizure of power against Republican values and acknowledgement of the need for order, which
was no doubt influenced by the fact that Appian lived under the rule of emperors. In this
passage, he describes the dictatorship of Sulla, who had seized sole control of Rome and
instituted a series of reforms. - 34The Proscriptions of the Second TriumvirateAppian
In this selection, Appian
describes the proscriptions (mass killings) of the Second Triumvirate (Octavian, Antony, and
Lepidus) in 43/2 BCE after they had seized power in Rome, having driven out Caesar’s assassins
(Brutus and Cassius). - 35Res GestaeAugustus
Augustus (also known as Gaius Ovtavius and Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus) was the first
emperor of Rome following his victory in the Civil Wars that ripped the Roman Republic apart.
He was the nephew of Julius Caesar as well as his adopted son and heir upon his death. In the
aftermath of Caesar’s death, Augustus outmaneuvered and defeated numerous opponents,
including Cicero, Brutus, Cassius, Antony, and Cleopatra. At the battle of Actium in 31 BCE,
Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra, establishing his sole control of the Roman world. The
name Augustus was bestowed by the Senate. He then reordered Rome, reestablishing stability
and prosperity, creating the Roman Empire, and ushering the Pax Romana. Sometime prior to
his death in 14 CE, Augustus composed, or ordered composed, a description of the things that he
had done for the good of Rome, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (Things Done by the Divine
Augustus). The account was then inscribed in Latin and Greek on the sides of temples
throughout the Empire by his heir Tiberius. The most complete example comes from a temple
dedicated to Augustus in modern day Ankara, Turkey. - 36The Speech of CalgacusTacitus
Tacitus was a Roman Senator and historian in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, during the height of
the Roman Empire. His family origins were humble (his nomen, Cornelius, may indicate that
their Roman citizenship was thanks to Sulla), and he owed his own position in the Senate to the
Flavian emperors. Tacitus served in a variety of public posts throughout the Empire. Tacitus
greatly admired the Republic, when the Roman Senate had been preeminent. However, he was
also well aware that the Senate had failed to maintain stability, acknowledging the need for a
strong individual to keep order. As such, Tacitus had a complex view of the position of emperor,
although he was often critical of those emperors he felt did not rule well. Indeed, Tacitus’ views
on Rome in general were complex; while he never doubted the superiority of the Romans, he was
willing to admit that they were far from perfect. This selection comes from Tacitus’ biography of
his father-in-law Agricola, who served as a successful governor of Britannia from 77 to 85 CE.
Calgacus was a native chieftain from Caledonia (Scotland), which was never subdued by the
Romans. The speech was composed entirely by Tacitus, despite its harsh statements. - 37Speech of Herod AgrippaJosephus
Josephus was a Jew who wrote in the 1st century CE. He was a politician and military
commander in Judaea during the Jewish Revolt from 66 to 73. During the conflict, he hid from
the Romans with a number of rebels in a cave; only Josephus survived to be captured by the
Romans under questionable circumstances. He then became a client and associate of the Roman
general and future emperor Vespasian, as well as his son Titus. He then became a Roman
citizen. In time, Josephus came to the conclusion that the Jewish revolt had been wrong. He
wrote a number of historical works in Greek. One, Jewish Antiquities, was intended to introduce
Jewish history into the Greco-Roman tradition. This selection is from Josephus’ Jewish War,
which was similar to Polybius’ Histories in explaining Roman dominance to the Jewish people,
describing the Romans for a Jewish audience, as well as justifying his own change in loyalties.
Here, the king of Judaea, Herod Agrippa (son of Herod the Great) attempts to convince his
people not to revolt. - 38The Gospel According to MarkAnonymous
The gospels describe the life, teachings, and (usually) death of Jesus Christ. Four gospels are
included in the Christian New Testament, although many others exist beyond them. The Gospel
of Mark is generally thought by historians to be the earliest of the gospels, dating to around 65
CE, sum thirty years after the death of Jesus. It is ascribed by early Church Fathers to Mark the
Evangelist, who was a companion of the Disciple Peter, although this tradition does not appear
until the 2nd century. The work is written in a simple form of Greek (koine), which had become a
lingua franca in the Eastern Mediterranean since the conquests of Alexander the Great. This
passage describes the final days of Jesus, including His arrest and execution at the hands of the
Roman governor Pontius Pilate. The final eleven verses of the gospel (16:9-20) do not appear in
the earliest manuscripts and are thus omitted here. - 39Concerning ChristiansPliny and Trajan
Pliny (the Younger) was a Roman politician and intellectual in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. He
was the nephew of Pliny the Elder, a renowned intellectual. The two Plinys witnessed the
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79. While Pliny the Younger watched from across the Bay of Naples,
Pliny the Elder, who was a prefect of the Roman navy stationed nearby, attempted to return to
Pompeii with ships to transport survivors to safety; he died doing so. Pliny the Younger served
in a number of offices and was well known for his skill as a bureaucrat. In 110, he was asked by
the emperor Trajan to become governor of Bithynia-Pontus (in Asia Minor). Pliny collected and
published his personal letters, which was common at the time (Cicero had done likewise).
Among these letters are those from his time as governor of Bithynia-Pontus, including not only
his own letters but the replies given by the emperor Trajan. Trajan was the second of the socalled
‘Good Emperors,’ who ruled in the early 2nd century CE. He was a renowned military
commander; during his reign, the Roman Empire reached its maximum size. Although ostensibly
from Trajan, many of his letters to governors, including Pliny, were likely handled by
subordinates. Pliny wrote the emperor on numerous issues so as to avoid going against the
emperor’s wishes and policies. In this selection, Pliny writes to Trajan concerning trials he is
holding of Christians in his province. The matter has clearly gotten out of hand and Pliny seeks
guidance in how to handle this odd cult. - 40On MartyrdomSt. Ignatius
St. Ignatius was one of the early Church Fathers from Antioch in Syria, who lived in the late 1st
and very early 2nd centuries CE. Details concerning his life are scarce and not always reliable.
Sources claims that he was one of the children held by Jesus. Ignatius served as bishop of
Antioch. Supposedly, St. Peter appointed him as such. At some point, he was convicted of being
a Christian and convicted to death in the Coliseum in Rome. Being Christian was illegal in the
Roman Empire and punishable by death. Christians that were killed for their faith were known
as martyrs and were venerated. In the Christian tradition established by St. Paul, Ignatius wrote
a number of letters. These letters helped disparate Christian communities to stay in touch. In
this letter written on his way to Rome, Ignatius expresses his desire for martyrdom, which will
ensure his place in Heaven.
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