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EWT
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- 1EWT-Evidence supplied by people who witness a specific event or crime, relying on their memory.
- 2Schema theoryBartlett
-Suggested we recall events inaccurately because we reconstruct events using prior knowledge.
-Our knowledge of events and things is stored as schema.
-We combine existing knowledge with what we experience to record things in our memories. - 3Effects of schemas on memoriesCohen
-We can store the main features of something without detail.
-We tend to ignore things that do not fit into our schemas.
-We can make sense of things by filling in missing information i.e using guesswork.
-We distort memories to fit in with our schema. - 4Leading Questions study 1Loftus and Palmer
-P's shown a video of a car crash and then asked to answer a question about the speed of the cars.
-The 45 p's were put into 5 groups of 9.
-the groups were 'smashed', 'collided', 'bumped', 'hit', 'contacted.'
-Asked to estimate average speed 'smashed' group estimated 41 mph 'contacted' group estimated 32 mph.
-9 mph difference.
Second part
-a week later p's were asked about broken glass.
-it is clear that those who had been asked a week previously to estimate the speed of 'smashed' had a higher assumption that there was smashed glass (32%)
-'hit' = 14%
-control group = 12% - 5Yerkes-DodsonInverted-U hypothesis
-moderate amounts of emotional arousal improve detail and accuracy of memory recall up to an optimal point
-After optimal point, further increase in emotional arousal leads to decline in recall - 6Anxiety on EWT study 1-People were given inoculations at their local health clinic.
-met a nurse giving injections and a researcher (both met for an equal amount of time).
-up to a week later , p's were asked to identify the nurse and researcher from photographs.
-Identification of researcher proved easier than the nurse.
-suggesting that the heightened anxiety levels due to the inoculations led to a decrease in memory accuracy (as less able to identify nurse) - 7Anxiety on EWT study 2Loftus et al
-2 groups saw a film
-1 group had a weapon, the other did not
-their gaze was monitored
-it was found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses will focus on the weapon rather than the person's face.
-negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals.
-supports 'weapon-focus' effect
-Thus supporting the idea that anxiety can divert attention from important features of a situation. - 8Anxiety on EWT study 3Ginet and Verkampt
-Group split into two
-half were told they would receive an electric shock and half wouldn't
-However they wouldn't actually receive a shock
-moderate anxiety produced in fake electrode group who thought they'd receive an electric shock
-low arousal in group who wouldn't receive and electric shock
-both were made to watch a video of a car crash
-a week later asked to recall details
-group who were told they'd receive an electric shock recalled more minor details
-supporting yerkes-dodson inverted-U hypothesis - 9How does age affect EWT-Both children and the elderly tend to make poorer EWT than adults
-Children appear to be highly susceptible to leading questions, especially 'tag' questions.
-'you saw the crime, did you not?'
-This is due to a mixture of language difficulties and a desire to please adults and a belief that adults tend to be right
-elderly tend to have less accurate recall due to fading memories, but the effect of leading questions is less clear, with research reaching different conclusion - 10Evidence suggesting older people are susceptibleCohen and Faulkner
-young adults and elderly p's were shown a silent film clip of a kidnapping
-10 minutes later a summary was given to them of the clip to read
-half had an accurate version, half had inaccurate version
-All p's were then tested for recall.
-elderly more susceptible to misleading information than young adults
-supporting idea that elderly are more susceptible - 11Evidence suggesting older people have reduced recallCoxon and Valentine
-children, young adults and elderly watched a video of a kidnapping
-afterwards, they were asked 20 questions-half of the p's had misleading q's included, half did not
-Children and the elderly had poorer recall
-children were influenced by misleading qs, but elderly were not
-supports idea that children more susceptible to misleading q's
-contradictory to Cohen and Faulkner's findings,as it contradicts with the idea that elderly are susceptible
-supports idea that elderly have poorer recall - 12What are the implications of research into age and EWT for children as eye witnesses?Honeycutt suggested:
1. Those interacting with child witnesses should have training so that they are aware of children's development and capacities.
2. Children should be familiarised with procedures they will be subjected to, for example should be familiarised with what a 'don't know' response is and when to use it .
3. Children who make line-up identifications should be provided with non-verbal response options, such as a picture of someone scratching their head to represent a lack of memory.
-They should also be given instructions and demonstrations of possible response options, in other words, the selection of a target person, an indication that the person is not there and a 'don't know' response.
4. The person with the child should not be included in the investigation to protect bias.
5. The use of leading q's should not be permitted.
6. Language appropriate to a child's age and development should be used. - 13How does a cognitive interview differ from a standard interview?-takes longer
-tends to interrupt the interviewee as little as possible and waits till the end for clarification when questions are asked
-interviewer tries not to ask leading q's - 14The cognitive interview-tool used primarily by police for interviewing suspects and witnesses
-The aim is to encourage accurate and complete recall of specific events
-based on the idea that information is organised in memory
-helpful when trying to recall something to try different routes to reach memory trace
-based on the fact that memories are context-dependent, meaning that retrieval cues present at the time of storage are re-instated - 154 features of a cognitive interview1. reinstate the context- mental reinstatment of context (e.g. what did the room/place look like? what was the weather like? what could you hear? how did you feel?
2. change sequence- change of narrative order (e.g. recount events backwards or starting in the middle)
3. Change perspective (e.g. from the point of view of someone else involved)
4. hyperamnesia [report everything] (include things that you may think are unimportant)
4. - 16Supporting evidence of the cognitive interviewFisher et al
-16 police inspectors from Miama conducted 2 interviews on 47 witnesses or victims of shoplifting or mugging
-Between 2 interviews, 7 inspectors were trained in cognitive interview whilst remaining 9 were the control group.
-increase in number of facts compared between the two groups
-cognitive interviews obtained 47% more facts relating to matters already examined compared with no increase in the control group
-suggesting cognitive interviews are useful for improving EWT - 17Evaluate the study-good ecological validity as they were real crimes with real victims with police carrying out their everyday jobs
-extraneous variables- complexity of crimes, interviewing skills of the inspectors, amount of time spent on second interviews could effect recall and validity - 18Further research into cognitive interviewGeisalman and Fishe-cognitive interview works best when used within a short time following a crime rather than a long time afterwards
- 19criticisms of the cognitive interview1. difficulty in assessing affectiveness- cognitive interview is composed of several techniques and as different police forces use different versions, comparison is difficult. Children younger than 8 recalled facts less accurately than other interview techniques
2. erroneous recall (wrong/ false recall)- prone to producing false positives where inocrrect items are recalled
3. Use of 'change of perspective' - Memon et al reported that police believe this technique misleads witnesses into speculating about the event witnessed and due to this concern it is less frequently used
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- As Level Psychology Fichas sobre EWT, creado por f.n97 el 29/03/2015.
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