psychology

psychology

1. Memory

   • msm
     • The Multi-store model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi-store model. It is a linear model that shows how information flows through the processes of memory. There are three main components to the model and it is assumed that information must pass through each of these fixed stages to be remembered. There are capacity and duration limitations at each stage. It also identifies ways in which information is forgotten
   • WMM
     • Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the amount of research it generated. However, as a result of this research, it became apparent that there were a number of problems with their ideas concerning the characteristics of short-term memory. Building on this research, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed an alternative model of short-term memory which they called working memory (see fig 1). Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple. According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems. Working Memory is not a unitary store.
       • The Multi-store model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi-store model. It is a linear model that shows how information flows through the processes of memory.There are three main components to the model and it is assumed that information must pass through each of these fixed stages to be remembered.There are capacity and duration limitations at each stage.It also identifies ways in which information is forgotten
   • Memory type
     • LTM
       • Long-term memory (LTM) is the final stage of the dual memory model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, in which data can be stored for long periods of time. While short-term and working memory persists for only about 20 to 30 seconds, information can remain in long term memory indefinitely.
     • STM
       • Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time.
     • Encoding
       • There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): 1. Visual (picture) 2. Acoustic (sound) 3. Semantic (meaning) For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using acoustic coding (by sound). Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in short term memory (STM) is acoustic coding. When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally). Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of paper). The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically.

2. Research methods

   • Experiment
     • Lab Experiment This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
     • Field Experiment These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).
   • Investigation
     • Case Study Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity.
   • Results
     • Correlation Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.
   • Correlation Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables. Pilot Study A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher. A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

3. Memory Retrieval This refers to getting information out storage. If we can’t remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between STM and LTM become very clear. STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants are given a list of words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the information. LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it. Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You can organize information in sequences (such as alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing and doing exercises. If the do

   • Baddeley graduated from University College London in 1956 and obtained an M.A. from Princeton University's Department of Psychology in 1957. He was awarded with a Ph.D. from University of Cambridge in 1962. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by University of Essex in 1999.[2] In 2000 Baddeley was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Science by Plymouth University.