LEARNING APPROACH

LEARNING APPROACH

1. BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNT THROUGH

   • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
     • BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNT THROUGH ASSOCIATION LIKE 2 STIMULI THAT OCCUR FREQUENTLY TOGETHER ARE ASSOCIATED OVERTIME
       • EXAMPLE MILK- VOMITS ,CHOCOLATE - LIKES , MILK + CHOCOLATE -LIKES, MILK- LIKES
       • CONDITIONING - BEEN TRAINED TO DO SOMETHING OVERTIME AND BECOMING USED TO
   • OPERANT CONDITIONING
     • BEHAVIOUR IS SHAPED THROUGH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - REWARDS AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - PUNISHMENT
   • SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
     • BEHAVIOUR IS ACQUIRED THROUGH MODELING OR VICARIOUS LEARNING -WHERE SOMEONE HAS LEARNT SOMETHING BUT DOESNT HAVE TO NECESSARILY DO IT

2. LEARNING

   • A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN OUR BEHAVIOUR AS A RESULT OF OUR EXPERIENCES IN ENVIRONMENT
   • RESULTS IN ACQUISITION OF NEW RESPONSES
   • MAY OCCUR WITHOUT NEW BEHAVIOURS NECCESSARILY BEING DEMONSTRATED
   • ENVIRONMENT GOVERNS LEARNING - PROVIDES EXPERIENCES

3. KEY ASSUMPTIONS

   • CONDITIONING AND SOCIAL LEARNING HELPS TO EXPLAIN CHANGES IN BEHAVIOUR

4. BANDURA ET AL -1961 - TRANSMISSION OF AGRESSION THROUGH IMITATION OF AGGRESSIVE MODELS

   • BANDURA CAME UP WITH SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - MODELLING OR OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
     • BASED ON BELIEVES THAT BEHAVIOURS ARE LEARNT FROM ROLE MODELS WHOM
       • WE IDENTIFY WITH IN TERMS OF AGE,GENDER
       • ARE REWARDED FOR THEIR SUCCESSES
       • ARE SUCCESSFUL - HAVE POWER AND STATUS
       • VICARIOUS LEARNING - LEARNING THROUGH OTHER PEOPLES SUCCESSES AND BEHAVIOURS / CONSEQUENCES OF OTHER PEOPLE
   • AIM
     • TO FIND OUT WHETHER A CHILD WOULD LEARN AGGRESSION BY OBSERVING A MODEL AND WOULD REPRODUCE THIS BEHAVIOUR IN ABSENCE OF THAT MODEL AND WHETHER THE SEX OF ROLE MODEL WAS IMPORTANT
       • 4 HYPOTHESES
         • OBSERVED AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR WILL BE IMITATED SO CHILDREN SEEING AGGRESSIVE MODELS WILL BE MORE AGRESSIVE THAN THOSE SEEING NON-AGRESSIVE OR NO MODELS
         • OBSERVED NON-AGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR WILL BE IMITATED SO CHILDREN SEEING NON-AGRESSIVE MODELS WILL BE LESS AGGRESSIVE THAN THOSE SEEING NO MODELS
         • CHILDREN ARE MORE LIKELY TO COPY SAME SEX MODEL
         • BOYS ARE MORE LIKELY TO COPY AGGRESSION THAN GIRLS
   • RESEARCH METHOD
     • LAB EXPERIMENT - AS ENVIRONMENT WASNT NORMAL PLACE WHERE CHILDREN PLAYED AND SITUATIONWAS CONTROLLED
     • RESEARCH DESIGN
       • INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN - DIFFERENT CHILDREN WERE USED IN EACH LEVEL OF IV
         • 3 DIFFERENT GROUPS MATCHED - INDEPENDENTS MEASURES DESIGN USING A MATCHED SAMPLE
     • IV
       • MODEL TYPE -WHETHER CHILD SAW AGGRESSIVE,NON-AGRESSIVE OR NO MODEL
       • MODEL GENDER - SAME GENDER AS CHILD OR DIFFERENT GENDER
       • LEARNER GENDER - IF CHILD WAS BOY OR GIRL
     • DV
       • LEARNING CHILD DISPLAYED -MEASURED THROUGH CONTROLLED OBSERVATION , MEASURES OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOURS WERE ALSO RECORDED
       • SAMPLE
         • 72 CHILDREN - 3 TO 6 YEARS
           • OBTAINED FROM STANFORD UNIVERSITY NURSERY SCHOOL
   • PROCEDURE
     • BEFORE EXPERIMENT CHILDREN WERE OBSERVED IN NURSERY SCHOOL BY EXPERIMENTER AND TEACHER WHO KNEW THEM WELL AND WERE RATED ON 4 ASPECTS USING A 5 POINT SCALE - PRE-EXISITING AGGRESSION LEVELS
       • ASSIGNED TO 3 GROUPS ENSURING LEVELS OF AGGRESSION OF CHILDREN IN EACH GROUP - MATCHED
       • 51 CHILDREN - RATED BY BOTH OBSERVERS ,SIMILAR RATINGS PRODUCED - INTER RATER RELIABILITY
       • CONTROL GROUP - SAW NO MODEL AT ALL 12 BOYS AND 12 GIRLS
       • AGRESSIVE - 6 BOYS AND 6 GIRLS WITH SAME GENDER , 6 BOYS AND 6 GIRLS WITH DIFFERENT GENDERS , NON-AGRRESSIVE SAME TOTAL 12 BOYS AND 12 GIRLS
     • EXPERIMENT STARTED WITH ALL PARTICIPANTS BEING PURPOSELY MILDLY ANNOYED
       • WATCHING AGGRESSION MAY REDUCE PRODUCTION OF AGGRESSION BY OBSERVER AND WAS NECESSARY TO SEE EVIDENCE OF LEARNING
       • TO ENSURE EVEN NON-AGRESSIVE AND CONTROL WOULD BE LIKELY TO EXPRESS AGRESSION SO ANY REDUCTION IN THAT COULD BE MEASURED
       • CHILD WAS SHOWN TO ROOM WITH ATTRACTIVE TOYS - FIRE ENGINE N BABY CRIB, 2 MINS OF PLAY AND TOLD THOSE WERE BEST TOYS AND HAD TO BE KEPT FOR OTHER CHILDREN
         • EXPERIMENTER AND CHILD MOVED TO ANOTHER OBSERVATION ROOM WHERE CHILD WAS SHOWN TABLE AND CHAIR IN PLAY AREA AND SHOWN HOW TO MAKE POTATO PRINTS AND STICKER PICTURES
           • OPPOSITE CORNER OF ROOM CONTAINED TABLE ,CHAIR ,TINKERTOY SET,MALLET,BOBO DOLL - MODEL SAT HERE IN CONDITIONS WHERE THERE WAS
             • EXPERIMENTER REMAINED IN THAT ROOM
           • 3 GROUPS -TREATED DIFFERENTLY
             • NON AGGRESSIVE - MODEL ASSEMBLED TINKER TOY SET FOR 10 MINS
             • AGGRESSIVE- TINKER TOY ASSMEBLED FOR 1 MIN AFTER WHICH MODEL ATTACKED BOBO DOLL
           • TEST OF CHILDS AGGRESSION THEN FOLLOWED IN WHICH CHILD WAS OBSERVED FOR 20 MINS USING ONE WAY MIRROR
             • CONTAINED AGGRESSIVE AND NON-AGRRESSIVE TOYS AND SOME ADDITIONAL TOYS
               • 3 RESPONSE MEASURES OF CHILD'S IMITATION
                 • IMITATION OF PHYSICAL AGGRESSION
                 • IMITATIVE VERBAL AGGRESSION
                 • IMITATIVE NON-AGGRESSIVE VERBAL RESPONSES
   • RESULTS
     • CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AGRESSIVE MODELS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE AGRESSIVE BOTH PHYSICALLY AND VERBALLY - EFFECT WAS GREATER FOR BOYS THAN GIRLS
     • BOYS WHO IMITATED AGGRESIVE ROLE MODELS WERE MORE LIKELY TO IMITATE PHYSICAL AGRRESSION WHILE GIRLS WERE MORE LIEKLY TO IMITATE VERBA;L AGRESSION
     • BOYS WERE MORE LIKELY TO IMITATE SAME -SEX MODEL - NOT ALWAYS FOR GIRLS
     • CHILDREN IN ALL GROUPS BOTH MALE AND FEMALE SHOWED AGGRESSIVE GUN PLAY EVEN THO THIS HADNT BEEN OBSERVED IN THE EXPOSURE SITUATION
     • CONCLUSIONS
       • RESULTS STRONGLY SUGGEST THAT OBSERVATION AND IMITATION CAN ACCOUNT FOR LEARNING OF SPECIFIC ACTS WITHOUT REINFORCEMENT OF EITHER MODEL OR OBSERVER
       • OBSERVED AGRESSIVE BEHAVIOURS WILL BE IMITATED
       • OBSERVED NON-AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR WILL BE IMITATED
       • CHILDREN ARE MORE LIKELY TO COPY SAME SEX MODEL ALTHOUGH MAY DEPEND ON EXTENT TO WHICH MODEL BEHAVES IN GENDER APPROPRIATE WAY
       • BOYS ARE MORE LIKELY TO COPY AGRESSION THAN GIRLS

5. SAAVEDRA AND SILVERMAN - BUTTON PHOBIA -2002 -CASE STUDY

   • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - LEARNING THROUGH ASSOCIATION LIKE 2 STIMULI THAT OCCUR FREQUENTLY TOGETHER ARE ASSOCIATED OVERTIME
     • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - NEW STIMULUS WHICH INTIALLY HAS NO EFFECT (NEUTRAL STIMULUS ) BECOMES ASSOCIATED WITH ANOTHER STIMULUS - UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
       • UCS ALREADY PRODUCES UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE -UCR
         • FOLLOWING PAIRING OF UCS and NS SOMETIMES ONLY ONCE BY MORE OFTEN REPEATEDLY NS WILL PRODUCE RESPONSE SIMILAR TO EXISTING UCR
           • NS - BECOMES CONDITIONED STIMULUS AND NEWLY LEARNED RESPONSE- CONDITIONED RESPONSE
   • PHOBIA- IRRATIONAL ,PERSISTENT FEAR OF AN OBJECT OR EVENT WHICH POSES LITTLE REAL DANGER BUT CREATES ANXIETY AND AVOIDANCE IN SUFFERER
   • BACKGROUND- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WAS INVESTIGATED BY IVAN PAVLOV WHO OBSERVED DOGS SALIVATING IN THE LAB AS PART OF TOTALLY DIFFERENT EXPERIMENT
     • SOME PSYCHOLOGISTS BELIEVE PHOBIAS CAN BE LEARNED AND UNLEARNED
       • EXPECTANCY LEARNING - PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL OR NON-THREATINING OBJECT OR EVENT BECOMES LINKED WITH POTENTIALLY THREATENING OUTCOME
       • EVALUATIVE LEARNING - ATITTUDES TOWARDS STIMULI CONSIDERED TO BE PRODUCT OF COMPLEX THOUGHT PROCESSES AND EMOTIONS WHICH LEAD AN INDIVIDUAL TO EVALUATE A PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL STIMULI NEGATIVELY
     • RESULTS
       • BEHAVIOURAL EXPOSURE - BY SESSION 4 SUCCESSFULLY ALL EXPOSURE TASKS WERE COMPLETED ,RATINGS OF DISTRESS INCREASED FROM SESSION 2-3 AND CONTINUED TO RISE,SUBJECTIVE RATINGS TO SPECIFIC ITEMS EVEN GOT HIGHER THAN BEFORE THERAPY ,DESPITE BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE EVALUATIVE REACTIONS REMAIN UNCHANGED
       • IMAGERY EXPOSURE THERAPY - SUCCESSFUL IN REDUCING BOYS RATING OF DISTRESS
       • CONCLUSIONS
         • TREATMENT WAS SUCCESFUL
           • EMOTIONS AND COGNITIONS RELATING TO DISGUST ARE IMPORTANT WHEN LEARNING NEW RESPONSES TO PHOBIC STIMULI
           • IMAGERY EXPOSURE - LONG TERM EFFECT ON REDUCING DISTRESS WITH SPECIFIC PHOBIAS AS IT TACKLES NEGATIVE EVALUATIONS
   • AIM
     • EXAMINE ROLE OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN RELATION TO FEAR AND AVOIDANCE OF PARTICULAR STIMULUS
     • IN CONTEXT OF SPECIFIC PHOBIA RESEARCHERS WANTED TO SEE IF USING A TYPE OF EXPOSURE THERAPY COULD REDUCE DISGUST AND DISTRESS ASSOCIATED WITH BUTTONS
   • RESEARCH METHOD
     • CLINICAL CASE STUDY
     • LIFE HISTORY AND TREATMENT STUDIED IN DEPTH
     • DATA COLLECTION - SELF REPORT MEASURES- MOTHER AND BOY WERE INTERVIEWED ABOUT ONSET OF PHOBIAS AND BEHAVIOUR
     • RESULTS OF TREATMENT -MEASURED USING 9 POINT SCALE OF DISGUST - FEELINGS THERMOMETER
   • SAMPLE - 9 HISPANIC AMERICAN BOY
     • MET CRITERIA OF HAVING SPECIFIC PHOBIA OF BUTTONS AND HAD BEEN EXPERIENCING SYMPTOMS 4 YEARS PRIOR TO STUDY
   • PROCEDURE
     • BOY AND MOTHER PROVIDED - INFORMED CONSENT
     • THEY WERE INTERVIEWED IN ORDER TO DETERMINE WHETHER ANY TRAUMA OR ABUSE COULD EXPLAIN BOY'S PHOBIA
     • PHOBIA BEGAN AT 5 WHEN BOY KNOCKED OVER BOWL OF BUTTONS IN FRONT OF TEACHER AND CLASS
       • FOUND INCIDENT DISTRESSING AND FROM THAT TIME ONWARDS AVOIDANCE OF BUTTONS STEADILY INCREASED
     • NECESSARY FOR INTERVIEWERS TO UNDERSTAND SPECIFIC FEELINGS OF BOY TOWARDS BUTTONS BEFORE TREATMENT
       • THROUGH DISCUSSION -CREATED HEIRACHY OF FEARED STIMULI WITH EACH ITEM INCREASING FEAR
         • TREATMENT WAS WITH 2 INTERVENTIONS
           • CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT - POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT THERAPY
             • BEHAVIOUR FOCUSED APPROACH - MEANT BOY WAS REWARDED FOR SHOWING LESS FEAR AND ACTUALLY HANDLING BUTTONS , POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT WAS GIVEN TO BOY FROM MOTHER ONLY AFTER COMPLETING GRADUAL EXPOSURE TO BUTTONS SESSIONS LASTED BETWEEN 20-30 MINS
           • MAIN FOCUS OF STUDY - IMAGERY EXPOSURE THERAPY
             • WHEN INTERVIEWING THE BOY IT WAD FOUND THAT BOY FOUND TOUCHING BUTTONS DISGUSTING AND ALSO BELIVED BUTTONS SMELLED UNPLEASANT AND THESE IDEAS FORMED BASIS OF DISGUST IMAGERY EXERCISES
               • DISGUST RELATED IMAGERY EXPOSURE WITH SELF CONTROL STRATEGIES
                 • HE WAS ASKED TO IMAGINE BUTTONS FALLING ON HIM, CONSIDER HOW THEY LOOKED,FELT,SMELT AND ALSO ASKED TO TALK ABOUT HOW THESE MADE HIM FEEL

6. PEPPERBERG - PARROT LEARNING -1987

   • AIM
     • FIND OUT IF PARROT COULD USE VOCAL LABELS TO DEMONSTRATE SYMBOLIC UNDERSTANDING OF SAME AND DIFFERENT CONCEPTS
   • BACKGROUND
     • MOST RESEARCH IN THIS AREA HAS BEEN ON NON-HUMAN PRIMATES EG GORRILAS AND CHIMPS
     • THERES EVIDENCE TO SUGGEST THAT CAPACITY TO RECOGNISE SAME /DIFFERENT ITEMS IS PRESENT IN MANY BIRD SPECIES AND THIS MAY BE THE CASE AS IT SERVES AN ADAPTIVE FUNCTION -IT BENEFITS BIRDS SURVIVAL
     • SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION - CONCEPT OF SAMENESS OR DIFFERENCE CAN BE LEARNED FROM ONE EXPERIENCE CAN BE APPLIED TO ENTIRELY NEW AND DIFFERENT SITUATION
   • RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN
     • ANIMAL CASE STUDY, INVOLVING 1 SUBJECT TRAINED AND TESTED OVER COUPLE OF YEARS
   • SAMPLE
     • 1 AFRICAN GREY PARROT - ALEX
   • PROCEDURE
     • ALEX HAD BEEN INVOLVED IN PRIOR RESEARCH ON COMMUNICATION AND COGNITION FOR AROUND 10 YEARS
       • DURING DAY PARROT HAD FREE ACCESS TO ALL AREAS IN LAB AND AT NIGHT CONFINED TO WIRE CAGE,FED SUITABLE DIET FOR HIS SPEICIES AND GIVEN TOYS TO PLAY WITH
         • AS A RESULT OF HIS PREVIOUS TRAINING - ALREADY HAD CONSIDERABLE VOCABULARY LIKE HE COULD NAME COLOURS AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF MATERIALS
           • ALSO EXPERIENCE OF REPLYING TO VERBAL PROMPTS
           • PURPOSE OF TRAINING ALEX WAS TO TEACH HIM TO RESPOND TO QUESTIONS WITH A CATERIGORAL LEVEL RATHER THAN SIMPLY DESCRIBING ITEM'S APPEARANCE OR STATING WHETHER IT MATCHED OR DINT MATCH - COMPLEX TASK REQUIRING ABSTRACT THINKING
             • HE ENGAGED IN TRAINING SESSIONS 2-4 TIMES A WEEK EACH SESSION LASTING BETWEEN 5 MIN AND 1 HOUR
               • TRAINING METHOD USED - MODEL/RIVAL APPROACH
                 • PARROT -RIVAL TO MODEL HAD TO COPY MODELS DESIRED RESPONSE TO RECEIVE TRAINER'S ATTENTION AND REWARD
                   • AT BEGINNING OF TRAINING SYSTEM OF CONTINOUS REINFORCEMENT WAS USED
     • TASK
       • TESTING PHASE WAS DELAYED FOR ACCURACY IN VOCALISATION
       • TEST WAS BY SECONDARY TRAINERS WHO HAD NOT WORKED BEFORE WITH ALEX
       • MATERIALS WERE PAIRED FROM A SELECTION GIVEN TO STUDENT WHO HAD NOTHING TO DO WITH STUDY IN ORDER TO CREATE UNBIASED SET OF STIMULI
       • RESEARCHERS WERE ONLY INTERESTED IN SAME OR DIFFERENT QUESTIONS BUT OTHERS WERE ALSO INCLUDED TO PREVENT BOREDOM
       • EACH TRIAL ALEX WAS PRESENTED WITH 2 OBJECTS THAT COULD DIFFER IN 1 OF 3 CATEGORIES -SHAPE COLOR MATERIAL
       • TASK WOULD INVOLVE PAIRS OF FAMILIAR ITEMS -FAMILIAR TRIAL
       • 1 OR BOTH ITEMS WHICH HADNT BEEN ENCOUNTERED YET - NOVEL TRIAL
       • PRINCIPAL TRAINER WAS PRESENT IN EACH TRIAL BUT SAT FACING AWAY FROM ALEX AND UNABLE TO SEE OBJECTS PRESENTED
       • AFTER EACH RESPONSE OF ALEX TRAINER REPEATED VOCALIZATION ALOUD AND IF RESPONSE WAS CORRECT THERE WAS PRAISING AND REWARDING WITH ITEMS
       • GETTING ANSWER RIGHT 1ST TIME COUNTED TOWARDS FIRST TRIAL RESPONSE
       • INCORRECT OR UNCLEAR VOCALISATION - TOLD NO AND OBJECT REMOVED, TRAINER TURNED HEAD AWAY FROM PARROT
   • CONCLUSIONS
     • PARROTS HAVE POTENTIAL TO DEMONSTRATE COMPREHENSION OF SYMBOLIC CONCEPTS SAME OR DIFFERENT
     • MAY ALSO LEARN TO RESPOND TO VERBAL QUESTIONS TO VOCALISE CATEGORICAL LABELS