Cross Cultural Variations

Cross Cultural Variations

1. The kind of attachment formed may vary between societies and between cultures depending upon the child rearing techniques seen most desirable within that community

2. Ainsworth carried out most of her research in the USA but others have found broad agreement with her findings in other parts of the World

   • Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
     • Carried out a meta-analysis combining the findings of 32 other studies of the strange situation from a variety of countries and based on the observation of over 2000 children
     • Findings
       • The most notable finding was the similarity in types of attachment across most countries. Secure attachment is the norm in the overwhelming majority of cultures
       • However these three countries stood out from the rest. Germany has a high percentage of avoidant attachments and both Israel and Japan a much higher than normal percentage of resistant
     • Evaluation
       • Despite the large number of studies combined in this meta-analysis over half (18 of the 32) were still US. Only five of the 32 were carried out in collectivist cultures
       • We also have the issue of imposed etic. The strange situation was designed by an American, using American children for use on other Americans. Many researchers have therefore questioned whether it can possibly be suitable for testing the children of other cultures
       • Rothbum et al (2000)
         • Suggest that although the need for protection appears to be universal, other factors differ. They believe psychologists should be working at an emic level, producing theories of attachment tailored to fit each individual culture.
       • Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
         • Report that differences in attachment within a culture are far greater than those found between cultures
           • Within a culture there are many sub-cultures, all with their own way of rearing children. These may be ethnically or racially based but also may be class specific, for example in the UK the so called ‘middle classes’ having different child-rearing techniques to the ‘working classes.’
       • Bee (1999)
         • With the exception of the countries mentioned earlier, most countries do seem to have a similar pattern with most infants forming secure attachments and the rest being split equally between avoidant and resistant.
         • Believes that the most striking feature of the cross cultural studies is their similarity

3. Explanations of these cross cultural differences

   • Israeli children were reared in a Kibbutz so were used to being separated from their mother. As a result they do not show anxiety when their mother leaves
     • However, they are not used to strangers so get distressed when left alone with the stranger. This explains the high percentage of resistant behaviour
       • Fox (1977)
         • Tested children in the strange situation using either their mother or the metapelet (Kibbutzim nurse). The children appeared similarly attached to both except for reunion behaviour where they were more pleased to see mother.
   • Japanese children show similar patterns of attachment to the Israeli children but for different reasons. Japanese children are very rarely left by their mother. So the distress they show when she leaves is probably more due to shock than it is to insecure attachment
     • The distress they show when left alone with the stranger is also more likely to be due to absence of the mother.
   • The German study highlights a high percentage of avoidant behaviour, typical of independent children.
     • Grossmann et al (1985)
       • German parents seek ‘independent, non-clingy infants, who do not make demands on parents, but obey their commands.

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