Learning Theories

Learning Theories

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Pavlov: Paired an UCS (food) with a CS (bell) to bring about UCR (salivation). Over time Pavlov confirmed through measuring dogs saliva that the dogs learned to associate the bell (CS) with the food (UCS)
   • Extinction: The conditioning between UCS and CS can simply disappear
   • Spontaneous Recovery: after extinction, the association can reoccur for no specific reason
   • Stimulus Generalisation: There is a tendency for the CS to produce the same behaviour to a similar situation
   • Systematic Desensitisation: Step by Step process where an individual with a phobia becomes more and more familiar with the feared object/item/situation in a gradual process. Individuals are taught to relax their muscles and how to deal with situations if they occur
     • based upon scientific research methodology: high validity
     • Evidence: Capafons et al
     • Reliable: standardised procedure which can easily be replicated
     • Ethical as individuals are empowered
     • Treatment is suitable for individual purposes - generalisable to many people
     • Reductionist: cognition/biology related to phobias
     • Limited as it is not useful for other mental health difficulties
   • Aversion Therapy: patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to a form of discomfort. Intends to cause patient to associate stimulus with unpleasant sensations in order to stop behaviour (eg addictions)
     • based upon CC: scientific methodology
     • Step by Step procedure: Reliable
     • Seligman 1966: 50% success rate with reducing homosexuality
     • Ethical Issues: therapy has been used for homosexuality. Causes unwanted emotions

2. CLASSIC STUDY: WATSON & RAYNER

   • Aim: Whether they could condition fear of an animal by simultaneously presenting the animal and striking a steel var to make a loud noise to frighten the child. Whether the fear would be transferred to other animals and objects. The effect of time on the conditioned responce
   • Procedure: Albert B selected (9 months, solid & unemotional). W&R initially tested his responses to various stimuli (eg cotton wool, white rat), he showed no fear response until they struck a hammer on a pole. The conditioning of a phobia did not start until 2 months later. at 11 months old. They presented Little Albert with white rat, no fear response noted. Watson then hit the steel bar when Albert touched the rat. At first. he was shocked but didn't cry but following several more conditioning trials he began to crawl away at the sight of the rat. 17 days later, they noticed stimulus generalisation. Watson presented Albert with a rabbit, he leaned away and burst into tears. He also showed adverse reaction when presented with other stimuli (eg dog, santa claus mask, cotton wool). 31 days into experiment, Little Albert was taken from the hospital by his mother
   • Results: A phobia of an object could be learned. If a neutral stimulus (white rat) is associated with an UCS (loud bang) which naturally triggers an UCR (fear) it would lead to a stimulus association. Stimulus Generalisation was observed as he transferred his fear to other animals and objects. Fear response lasted for at least 31 days
   • Conclusions: An infant could be classically conditioned to develop a fear of a white rat. Such conditioned emotional responses have the potential to last a life time. Objects similar to feared stimulus could also elicit a feared response
   • Evaluation: Methodology made study reliable. Lack of ecological validity. Lack of ethics. Not generalisable. Nature/Nurture (mainly nurture but includes natural reactions)

3. Contemporary Study: Capafons et al

   • Aim: To validate the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for a fear of flying, and to assess the therapeutic success of systematic desensitisation when applied to this type of phobia
   • Procedure: 41 p's recruited using media campaign. p's randomly assigned to treatment or control group.

4. Operant Conditioning

   • Reinforcements: encourage repetition of desired behaviour
     • Positive: Something good is given
     • Negative: Something bad is taken away
   • Punishments: doing something unpleasant to stop behaviour
     • Positive: Something bad/undesired is given
     • Negative: Something good is taken away
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     • Fixed Ratio: behaviour reinforced only after behaviour occurs a set number of times
     • Fixed Interval: reinforcement given after a fixed time interval given at least one correct response has been made
     • Variable Ratio: reinforcement is given randomly with regard to number of responses achieved
     • Variable Interval: reinforcement given after variable amounts of time
   • Shaping: forming complex behaviour that would not occur as a whole naturally.
     • 1) Rewarding moves towards desired behaviour
     • 2) Then, waiting for an action that is nearer to the desired behaviour before a reward is given
     • 3) Finally, waiting for the actual behaviour before offering the reinforcement
   • Phobias
     • If a fear is rewarded by getting attention, then the response is more likely to occur again
     • By avoiding feared situation, person feels less anxiety (reward) so is more likely to avoid in future

5. Social Learning Theory

   • Bandura 1961
     • Aim: To see whether children will imitate aggressive behaviour when given the opportunity, even if they had seen these behaviours in a different environment
     • Stage 1: P's led into first room and were encouraged to play with potato prints and stickers. Model was then escorted into room and was told that the tinkertoy set, mallet and bobo doll were for him to play with. Experimenter left room.
       • Aggressive condition: Model laid bobo doll on its side, sat on it and punched it on nose; raised bobo doll up and hit it on head with mallet; threw bobo doll in air and kicked it round room. "sock it to him" "pow"
       • Non Aggressive condition: model assembled tinkertoys in a quiet manner and ignored bobo doll
     • Stage 2: children led to different room with loads of nice toys. "These are my very best toys" "I don't just let anyone play with them" "I have decided to keep them for the other children"
     • Stage 3: children taken to room 3 containing aggressive toys (bobo doll, mallet, gun etc) and non aggressive toys (tea set, crayons etc). 2 observers watched children through one way mirror for 20 mins (time sampling)
     • Results: ps in aggressive condition showed more aggressive behaviour than those in non-aggressive and control. Ps in non-aggressive condition showed no significant difference in behaviour to control. Children were more likely to copy a same-sex model. Boys in particular imitated more aggressive acts than girls
     • Conclusions: In order for a behaviour to be produced it is learnt through: Observation, Modelling, (Imitation)
   • Bandura 1963
     • Aim: Whether the exposure of children to film mediated aggressive models would increase the probability of aggressive behaviour
     • Stage 1
       • Real life aggression condition: (see 1961 aggressive condition)
       • Human-Film aggression condition: Ps led into semi-darkened room, while they played with potato prints, a movie was shown on a screen 6 foot away from table. Film shown for 10 mins, models in film were the same models in the real life condition
       • Cartoon Film Aggression: Ps sat at table 3 foot away from tv. Cartoon of female model costumed as black cat similar to many cartoon cat. Cat hit bobo foll on head with mallet
     • Stage 2: children taken into room 2 filled with attractive toys. Child allowed to play for 2 minutes. Child informed that the toys were reserved for other children
     • Stage 3: children taken to room 3 with aggressive and non aggressive toys. Experimenter stayed in room as children refused to go on own, and worked discreetly on other side of room. Behaviour observed for 20 mins by 2 observers through one way mirror (5 sec time sampling)
     • Results: aggression levels were higher in all aggressive conditions (99 in cartoon aggression) than the control (54)
     • Conclusions: Observing filmed aggressive acts will lead to aggression acts in children. This study also made indications that learning is vicarious