Topic 4: Learning psychology

Topic 4: Learning psychology

1. ·

   • Shaping
     • waiting, actual bh before, rt
     • waiting, action, nearer to the desired bh
     • rewarding moves towards the desired bh
     • = using operant, in the form of rewards + punishments, a complex bh that wouldn't occur as a whole naturally so couldn't be reinforced itself. reinforcing small parts of the bh + gradually asking for more, before, reward
     • E.g. ad, squirrel, conquer an assault course. The whole course couldn't, achieved in 1 attempt. reward each part, course

2. Vaughan et al. (2014), calves: didn't continue to use 1 calf bc of its distress

3. Evaluation of operant + classical conditioning theories as explanations of human bh

   • Objective measures + careful controls. scientifically. some bh, isolated. E.g. Skinner, cage, varied, IV, differences introduced, clear, measured, DV carefully
   • Therapy, useful
   • E.g. cats, learn, out, puzzle box by trial + error. vs. problem-solving techniques + previous experience. not useful
   • lack validity. isolate bh, reducing such bh to a small part of normal activities. concepts aren't valid, apply just to small parts of overall bh

4. Social learning theory

   • alongside operant, observational learning = watch what others do + copy, thus learning new bhs
   • learning goes 2 ways. individual affecting the environ too, e.g. cognitive processes involved in whether someone learns or not
   • interacting = reciprocal determinism
     • not only does the environ. act on the individual to 'cause' learning, but also the individual acts on their environ. e.g. attending to a modelled bh, retaining it, reproducing it, motivated to reproduce it
   • steps in observational learning
     • 1. bh, modelled by a role model. someone important to the individual
     • 2. observer identifies w/ the role model. connection. link.
     • 3. bh, observed + noted
     • 4. bh, imitated. whether, repeated again, pattern, consequences
   • Modelling
     • a live model: someone is actually doing the bh
     • verbal instruction: talked through the bh
     • through symbols, e.g. TV, or actual symbols, e.g. rep. happiness through certain bhs or objects
   • imitation depends on
     • model
     • consequences, seen
     • Rt = motivational
     • identified w/ + involved, + showing the bh
     • element of thinking in learning's processes, not considered in classical or operant
   • cognitive processes in observational learning
     • observed, attended to, stored in M, rewarded, motivation to reproduce it
     • Bh, may not be exhibited until some time after the learning has occurred
   • 4 stages, relate to cognitive processes
   • Vicarious learning
     • Vicarious extinction, stop, seen, not rewarded
     • Vicarious rt: ___________________ effect
       • Modelling: seen + wouldn't have done otherwise
       • Eliciting: does it a bit differently
       • Disinhibiting: bh, done that someone wouldn't think OK but has seen it done w/o negative consequences + now thinks, OK
       • Inhibitory: role model punished, don't do it
   • Models, more likely
     • similar, in the mind of the observer
     • perceived, important or prestigious
     • bh, observable
   • E
     • experimental evidence. Bandura. E.g. Mineka, observer monkeys, learn a fear of, snake + snake-like objects bc model monkeys show fear of snakes
     • therapy. E.g. OCD, operant conditioning principles + shaping. 1 piece, rewarded for not carrying out that bh. Someone the patient trusts, desired bh, see, consequences aren't unpleasant. keep touching an object w/o hand-washing
     • Bh might not be exhibited immediately, difficult, test for observational learning. Experiments, specific bhs, specific time, results, limited, lack of validity

5. Stimulus-substitution theory

   • = the UCR = same as the CR but appears in response to a different stimulus.
     • E.g. aunt, substituted for the flowers, sneeze
   • CR can be weaker, UCR
     • E.g. biological R to an electric shock = increased heart rate. Something, paired w/ the shock, R, CS, lowered heart rate. not what classical, predicts. CNS, can yield different Rs, expected

6. stimulus generalisation

   • = S similar, CS, CR
   • opp. discrimination (conditioning, focused in on a specific S)
     • using other bell tones w/o food. just food w/ the required bell tone

7. Pavlov's 1927 experiment

   • A = cerebral cortex works, survival
     • look at reflexes, pathways, brain
   • some higher-order thinking + manageable, tested
   • In Lecture II, artificiality of experiments, isolation from RL S. However, w/o this isolation of vs, study of the complexity of the cerebral cortex isn't possible. sacrifice validity for reliability, objectivity, + scientific credibility
   • P
     • special chamber
       • can't hear footsteps outside, room
       • experimenter's blinking, movements, sweating, not S
     • Lecture II, metronome, food
     • pairing, 20 times, but, variation, strength, CS
     • meat, mouth, check the salivation reflex
     • electric buzzer, 5-10 s after meat didn't
       • appearing w/ meat once, before, did give salivation
   • R
     • metronome, started after 9s. By 45s, 11 drops, collected (Lecture II)
     • tested the reflex itself
     • after, didn't. before + paired once did.
     • alert + no other S present, distract or affect the acquired learning, conditioning
     • secondary conditioning = first CS (metronome), + NS (buzzer). Buzzer, CS, CR
   • C
     • signalisation
       • links, metronome to food, R
       • needed, survive (e.g. learned association between, metronome + meat) + natural inborn reflexive responses (e.g. salivation, meat)
     • same experiment, 2 dogs, opp. effects
       • Conditioning, sensitive to many extraneous vs, + individual differences
     • As, no possibility of looking @ the cerebral cortex's functioning, there's a complexity, 'paths' that develop through conditioning that is hard to study
   • E
     • A = objective + scientifically credible results
     • Pavlov + his team repeated many experiments, continually found, CS, CR, buzzer, metronome, + other S
     • chamber + no other S present
       • RL bh isn't being looked at, data aren't valid
         • However, w/o this isolation of vs, study of the complexity of the cerebral cortex isn't possible. E.g. salivation is valid - it is salivation.
     • unable to measure brain activity directly, assume what was happening in the cerebral cortex, experiments
       • felt, shown inbuilt pathways, UCS, UCR
         • showed new associations, which could be new pathways, CS, CRs
       • couldn't study the exact mechanisms as we can today, e.g. fMRI scanning
     • evolution led Pavlov, generalise, dogs, same processes. do have reflexes as dogs do
       • different higher-order processing. But, classical, treatment of alcoholism, processes of classical, do apply

8. operant conditioning

   • voluntary bh
   • consequences, after R, whereas, classical, S, R
   • punishment doesn't help to achieve the desired bh; only stops undesired bh. only attention, rewarding, not, therapy, wanting, change bh

9. Contingency = bh + consequences, dependent on one another - clear link

10. Contiguity = timing between, bh + consequences, not too long, relate to one another

11. Continuous rt = when each bh gets the consequence, e.g. every peck when green light, reward, food pellet. not a schedule, always happens, every time, every peck

12. 4 schedule of rt

    • fixed interval = regarding the time of the reward (or punishment) there's a fixed time. More bhs as the time for the reward increases
    • variable interval = regarding the time of the reward (or punishment), there's a variable time. bhs are steady, unknown when, consequences.
    • fixed ratio = regarding the no. of bhs, reward or punishment is at a set no.. High no. of responses up to the consequences being given, but, might, period, not many responses once, reward, given.
    • variable ratio = reward or punishment, given rather randomly w/ regard, no. of bhs. most efficient, unknown when, consequences, arrive. bh can, continuous