Flashcards
Relationships year 2
Cards in this deck (94)
- 1what are the differences between female and male sex cells?female- larger, static, only last a limited amount of years
male- small, mobile, produced from puberty to old age - 2what is anisogamy?differences between male and female sex cells
- 3what are the consequences of anisogamy ?There are plenty of fertile males but fewer females
gives rise to different mating strategies - 4what are the two types of selection?intersexual selection
Intrasexual selection - 5what is inter sexual selection ? what gender mainly uses this strategy ?quality over quantity
females - 6what is Intrasexual selection ? what gender favours this?quantity over quality
males - 7explain females strategy for selection?females make a greater investment of time and commitment therefore favour resources
- 8explain males strategy of selection?males do best if they reproduce as frequently as possible to ensure genes are passed on
they go for more youthful woman because they are seen as more fertile - 9what patterns of human reproductive behaviour does Intrasexual pressures lead to?male aggression- more likely to reproduce
male preference for youthful and fertile woman leads to more reproductive success - 10what are the three evaluation points for sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?strength- support for relationship with Intrasexual selection
strength- support for relationship with intersexual selection
limitation- relationship ignores social and cultural differences - 11what is the support for Intrasexual selection?Buss surveyed over 10,000 adults in 33 countries asking about partner preference. He found females valued resource related characteristics whereas men favoured reproductive capacity. This supports sex differences
- 12what is the support for inter sexual selection?Clark and Hatfield- sent students to approach other students and ask 'I have been noticing you around and think you're attractive will you come to bed with me tonight?' No female students agreed but 75% males agreed
- 13how does sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour explanation ignore social and cultural differences?Partner preferences have been impacted over time by changing social norms and cultural practises. This has happened too rapidly to be explained by evolutionary terms. Chang et al reported some preferences have changed over 25 years but others haven't.
- 14What is self disclosure?refers to revealing intimate information to another person
- 15what is the social penetration theory?It is a gradual process of revealing inner self to someone else. This is a sign of trust. The partner has to reciprocate
- 16Explain how breadth and depth changes as a relationship develops?Breadth is narrow at the start because if too much information is revealed it may be off putting however increases as more information is revealed
depth increases as more layers are revealed and more intimate information is shared - 17Explain reciprocity in self disclosure and what it allows?there must be reciprocity
successful relationships will involve disclosure from one partner which is received sensitively by another. This should then lead to further self disclosure from the other partner - 18what are the three evaluation points for self disclosure?strength- research support
strength- real life applications
limitation- does not apply to all cultures - 19what is the research support for self disclosure?Sprecher and Hendrick- found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self disclosure. Men and woman who used self disclosure and those who believed their partners were disclosed were more satisfied with their relationship
- 20how can self disclosure be applied to real life?Hass and Stafford found 57% gay men and woman reported that open and honest self disclosure was a maintenance strategy. Couples that use too much 'small talk' can be encouraged to increase self disclosure in order to deepen relationships
- 21how does self disclosure not apply to all cultures?Tang et al- concluded that people in the US self disclose significantly more sexual thoughts and feelings than people in china. Both levels of self disclosure are linked to relationship satisfaction in those cultures but pattern is different. Therefore theory can lack generalisability
- 22Why is symmetry said to be an important part of physical attraction?Shackelford et al- found people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive. It is seen as a signal of genetic fitness that cannot be faked
- 23why are baby face features seen as attractive?These features are thought to trigger protective and caring instincts, related to formation of attachment. These are seen as adaptive as they strengthen attachment
- 24What is the halo effect?We hold preconceived ideas about the attributes of attractive people. We believe their attitudes are overwhelmingly positive.
- 25what is the matching hypothesis conducted by Walster et al ?States we choose partners that are of the same level of attractiveness to ourselves. To do this we need to assess our own value to a potential partner
- 26what are the three evaluation points for physical attractiveness?strength- support for halo effect
limitation- not everyone considers physical attractiveness as important
limitation- mixed support for matching hypothesis - 27what is the research support for the halo effect?Palmer and Peterson- found physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgeable and competent than attractive people. This suggests politicians might be elected merely due to attractiveness.
- 28Explain the limitation of physical attractiveness 'not everyone considers physical attractiveness important'?Those who scored highly on MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness when judging likeability from a photo and data. As low scorers were less sensitive to this illness it would seem there are individual differences.
- 29what is the mixed support for the matching hypothesis ? why is this a limitation?Walster et al's initial study failed to support the theory as they found students preferred partners who were more physically attractive rather than matching their level. Meta analysis of studies found a significant correlation In ratings of attractiveness between them
- 30what is the filter theory and what are the 3 levels?filter theory- explains in terms of attitudes how we filter individuals in terms of availability and field of desirables
1- social demography
2-similarity in attitudes
3-complimentarity - 31Give a brief description about the social demography stage of the filter theory?social demography- include geographical location and social class, more likely to meet and have meaningful encounters with those physically close. Anyone who is too different are filtered out
- 32Give a brief description about what happens in the second stage of the filter theory ?similarity in attitudes- important in development but only for those who have been together less than 18 months. It involves agreeing on basic values and good communication. Where this similarity doesn't exist relationships are seen to fade
- 33Give a brief description about the 3rd stage of the filter theory?complementarity- partners compliment each other when one has traits the other lacks. It is said to give a relationship a felling of togetherness.
- 34what are the 3 evaluation points of filter theory?strength- research support
limitation- lack of replication of original findings
limitation-questions about direction of effect - 35what is the research support for the filter theory?winch- found similarities of attitudes and interests between partners are typical of the early stages but complementarity then increases in importance. This supports at least 2 stages of filter theory. Increases validity
- 36why is lack of replication a limitation of filter theory?Levinger suggested social change and difficulties in defining depth of a relationship could be the reason.
Kerckhoff and Davis assumed partners together over 18 months were more committed. This may not be the case in all cultures or cases - 37what are the limitations to do with direction of effect in the filter theory ?Anderson- found cohabiting partners experienced emotional convergence, becoming more similar over time.
Davis and Rusbult- suggest attitude alignment also takes place. This suggests similarities are the effect of the relationship not the cause - 38What are the main points of the SET theory in relationships?Thibault and Kelley- Suggested relationships can be explained through the exchange of goods. Eg profit, cost
- 39give the definitions of profit and cost in terms of relationships? give some examplesprofits- cost minus rewards
cost may include loss of time or stress - 40Explain the comparison level of the SET explanation ?judgment of the reward level we expect in a relationship. This is determined by social norms and experiences.
- 41Explain comparison level for alternatives?involves considering whether we might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship. We will remain in a relationship despite available alternatives when we consider it more rewarding
- 42What are said to be the 4 stages of a relationship? (SET explanation)sampling stage- exploring rewards and costs by experimenting
bargaining stage- negotiation around costs and rewards
commitment stage- where relationships become more stable.
institutionalisation stage- partners settle - 43what are the 3 evaluation points for SET theory of relationships?limitation- Assumes all relationships are exchange based
limitation- direction of effect
limitation- doesn't consider equity - 44explain how SET assumes relationships are exchange based and state how this is a limitation ?Clark and mills- argue exchange relationships may involve profit but communal relationships involve the giving and receiving of rewards without thinking of profit. At the start of a relationship tallying of exchanges may be seen as suspicious
- 45how is direction of effect a limitation of the SET theory?it is assumed dissatisfaction occurs when costs outweigh rewards or alternatives seem more attractive but miller found people who said they were in a committed relationship spent less time looking at attractive people. This was a good predictor for relationship continuing. This suggests we may not consider profit until we become dissatisfied
- 46How does SET theory ignore equity and why is this a limitation?SET focuses on comparison levels but ignores the fact many romantic partners desire fairness/ equity. Hatfield et al found couples in equitable relationships were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as under benefitting or over benefitting.
- 47what is equity?when both partners profit is roughly the same
- 48how does over benefitting and under benefiting lead to dissatisfaction?under benefited- likely to be the least satisfied and their feelings may be evident in anger and resentment
over benefited- may feel discomfort and shame - 49what are the consequences of inequity ?The greater the perceived inequity the greater the dissatisfaction- it predicts a strong positive correlation between the two.
- 50how does equity change over a relationship and what are the consequences of this?At the start of a relationship it is natural to contribute more than you receive
if this continues as the relationship develops then satisfaction with the relationship may fail. - 51Why is the idea of inequity in relationships seen as a cognitive change?Partner may revise their perception of rewards and costs so relationship feels more equitable even if nothing actually changes.
- 52what are the three evaluation points for the equity theory?strength- research support
limitation- may not be valid in all cultures
limitation- individual differences - 53what is the research support for equity theory?Utne- found newly weds who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those seen as under or over benefiting. Would seem profit Is not the key issue when judging relationships
- 54what is the research that found equity theory may not apply to all cultures? why is this a limitation ?Aumer Ryan- found couples in individualist cultures linked satisfaction to equity but partners in a collectivist culture were more satisfied when over benefiting. This was true for both men and woman.
- 55What are the individual differences that are a limitation to the equity theory?Huseman- suggest some people are less sensitive to equity than others. Some are happy to contribute more than they get. Others believe they deserve to be over benefitted and accept it without feeling guilty.
- 56what is Rusbults model?Further development of SET that suggests commitment depends on satisfaction level, comparison level and comparison alt.
- 57what is the definition of investment?the resources associated with a romantic relationship which would be lost if relationship ended
- 58what is the definition of satisfaction level?the extent to which partners feel the rewards of the romantic relationship exceeds the costs
- 59What are the two types of investment and explain what each are?intrinsic- any resources put directly into the relationship
extrinsic- investments that previously did not feature in the relationship, closely associated with it. - 60how is commitment determined by satisfaction and alternatives?high levels of satisfaction + little alternatives + size of investment increasing = more committed
- 61what is seen as more important in Rusbult's model; satisfaction or commitment ?commitment matters more. This explains why a dissatisfied partner stays in a relationship when their level of investment is high. They will be more willing to work hard to repair problems
- 62what are relationship maintenance mechanisms in Rusbult's model and give some examples?Behaviours that keep the relationship going. Eg
-putting partners interests first
-forgiveness
-unrealistically positive
-promoting relationship - 63what are the three evaluation points for Rusbult's model?strength-research support
strength- can explain why people are in abusive relationships
limitation- model oversimplifies investment - 64what is the research support for the investment model?Le and Agnew- review found satisfaction, comparison alt and investment size all predicted relationship commitment. Where commitment was greatest, relationships were more stable. This was true for both men and woman
- 65how does Rusbult's model explain why people may stay in abusive relationships? why is this a strength?Rusbult and Martz- found women who reported making the greatest investment and who had fewest attractive alternatives were the most likely to return to the partners who had abused them. Concept of satisfaction can't explain this but commitment can.
- 66how does Rusbult's model oversimplify investment and why is this a limitation?Goodfriend and Agnew- argue there is more to investment than just the resources. Early in a relationship you may make few actual investments but do invest in your future. This may motivate partners to commit so plans become reality
- 67What is ducks phase model and what does it show?Shows the phases of a breakdown. He argued the breakdown of a relationship is a process that takes place over 4 phases
- 68what are the 4 phases of Ducks phase model?intra-psychic
dyadic
social
grave-dressing - 69explain the intra-psychic phase?'I cant stand this anymore'- indicating something has to change. A partner becomes dissatisfied. This is usually kept to themselves or share with trusted friend
- 70explain the dyadic phase of Ducks model?'I would be justified in withdrawing' - once a partner decides they are justified in leaving they have to discuss it with partner. Phase may vary in length and intensity
- 71explain the social phase of Ducks model?'I mean it'- Seek support from joint friends. These friends may be encouraged to choose a side but others may try and prevent makeup. Once new is public there is usually no return
- 72explain the grave dressing phase of Ducks model?'now inevitable' - suitable story of relationship and its ending is prepared. This usually favours the story teller.
- 73what are the 3 evaluation points of Ducks phase model?limitation- incomplete model
limitation- supporting evidence based on retrospective data
strength- application to helping people reverse the process - 74why is Ducks model seen as incomplete?Rollie and Duck added a fifth phase called the resurrection phase. This was where ex partners begin to use what they have learned from previous relationships. The refined version also clarifies the point that movement through stages is neither linear nor inevitable
- 75how is the supporting evidence of Ducks model based on retrospective data?interviews about process tend to take place after the breakdown, not during. This may not be reliable. It is impossible to study breakdown in earlier stages without potentially interfering with ongoing process
- 76how can Ducks phase model be applied to helping people reverse the process?The model suggests some repair strategies might be more effective at one stage rather than another. It would be less helpful to encourage brooding if a person had already reached social phase
- 77what does the reduced cues theory suggest in both FTF and CMC about self disclosure?suggests that in CMC relationships are less effective due to nonverbal cues. In FTF relationships we rely on these cues. Lack of cues about emotional states lead to de individuation and disinhibition.
- 78What does the hyper personal model suggest?suggests early self disclosure means that CMC relationships develop quickly. These can become more intense and intimate. However CMC relationships can also end more quickly because of high excitement level and low trust.
- 79How does self disclosure differ in CMC compared to FTF ?The sender of a message can be selective about how they present themselves when self disclosing. This along with anonymity means they may feel less accountable for their behaviour
- 80What are some benefits to starting a relationship online?absence of gating. A relationship can develop and once self disclosure becomes deeper the gates become less of an issue.
Without the obstacles of FTF communications gates become less of an issue - 81what are the three evaluation points for virtual relationships?limitation-lack of research support for reduced cues theory
strength-hyper personal model has supporting research
limitation- do not distinguish types of CMC - 82explain the limitation of reduced cues theory?Walther and Tidwell assert that cues in CMC are simply different from those in FTF. They found there are plenty of cues in CMCS just not the nonverbal ones we see in FTF. Emoticons and Arostics are considered effective substitutes in CMC for lack of usual non verbal cues.
- 83what is the support for hyperpersonal model?Whitty and Joinson found supporting evidence for both hyperhonest and hyperdishonest online disclosures, Questions asked in online discussions tend to be direct, probing and intimate which are quite different from FTF.
- 84explain the evaluation point of virtual relationships "do not distinguish types of CMC" ?online e commerce forms and facebook/ online dating the level of self disclosure varies. People disclose more in areas they consider private and disclose less on webforms that involve collection of data. This means validity may be limited.
- 85what is used measure intensity of parasocial relationships?celebrity attitude scale
- 86what are the different levels of the celebrity attitude scale? give a brief descriptionentertainment social- celebrities viewed as sources of entertainment
intense personal- intermediate level where someone becomes personally involved
borderline pathological- fantasies are uncontrollable and extreme behaviour - 87explain the absorption addiction model?suggests parasocial relationships can make up for personal deficiencies. People may be triggered towards higher level by stressful life events.
- 88what are the definitions of absorption and addiction ?absorption- seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus their attention on the celebrity and identify with them
addiction- individual needs to increase involvement to gain satisfaction - 89explain the attachment theory explanation for parasocial relationshipssuggests early difficulties in attachment may lead to difficulties in forming successful relationships in later life. Such difficulties may lead to a preference for parasocial relationships.
- 90what are the two attachment types related to the attachment theory explanation of parasocial relationships ? How do the attachment types relate to the explanation?insecure resistant- most likely to form parasocial relationships because they want unfulfilled desires met where there is no real threat of rejection
insecure avoidant- prefers to avoid pain or rejection of any type of relationship - 91what are the 3 evaluation points for parasocial relationships?strength- research support for addiction-absorption model
limitation- absorption addiction model lacks explanatory power
limitation- link to attachment theory is lack of support - 92what is the research support for the absorption addiction model?Maltby- studied female adolescents who reported an intense relationship with a female celebrity whose body shape they admired. These tend to have poor body image. Maltby linked entertainment social with extraverts. intense personal with neurotic traits and pathological with psychotics
- 93how does absorption addiction model lack explanatory power?the model describes the characteristics of people at different levels of intensity but does not explain why different forms develop. This does not help prevent the more dangerous and disturbing forms. Model is therefore limited
- 94explain the evaluation point "attachment theory has lack of support"McCutcheon- found participants with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships than those with secure. This is a key assumption of the explanation. Questions validity
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- AS level Psychology (relationships ) Flashcards on Relationships year 2, created by Tamsin Copland on 12/01/2019.
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