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Flashcards

Physiological Psych: Exam 2

Renee Torio Psychology English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1logical reasoninghow to think about experiments and data using inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and the scientific method
  2. 2inductive reasoningusing specific observations to create a general conclusion ("bottom-up"); have either a strong or weak conclusion
  3. 3deductive reasoningtaking general statements of fact to arrive at a specific conclusion (top-down processing), either a valid or invalid conclusion, syllogisms
  4. 4scientific methoda method of acquiring knowledge about the world that uses inductive and deductive reasoning- six specific steps
  5. 5six steps of the scientific methodobservation/question, research, hypothesis, experiment, result, conclusion (then can make theories if hypothesis supported by LOTS of good data)
  6. 6non-experimental ways to learn about the brainmaking measurements to make basic descriptions of brain structure or activity- can be used to build knowledge about the brain or to diagnose
    making measurements of different variables to discover correlations
  7. 7experimental ways to learn about the braintrue and quasi-experiments
  8. 8true experimentcomparing measurements between groups randomly assigned to achieve specific manipulations in order to establish cause and effect (independent and dependent variables)
  9. 9quasi-experimentwhen the manipulation of variables in an experiment is not assigned randomly/the groups already exist
  10. 10descriptive design goalto create a snapshot of the current state of affairs
  11. 11descriptive design advantagesprovides a relatively complete picture of what is occurring at a given time, allows the development of questions for further study
  12. 12descriptive design disadvantagesdoes not assess relationships among variables, may be unethical if participants do not know they are being observed
  13. 13correlational design goalsto assess the relationships between and among two or more variables
  14. 14correlational design advantagesallows testing of expected relationships between and among variables and the making of predictions. Can assess these relationships in everyday life events
  15. 15correlational design disadvantagescannot be used to draw inferences about the causal relationships between and among the variables
  16. 16experimental design goalsto assess the causal impact of one or more experimental manipulations on a dependent variable
  17. 17experimental design advantagesallows drawing of conclusions about the causal relationships among variables
  18. 18experimental design disadvantagescannot experimentally manipulate many important variables. May be expensive and time-consuming
  19. 19basic methodscan be used to provide information about structure or function
  20. 20structure methodsdescription of how the brain is constructed in terms of components, chemistry, connections, etc
  21. 21function methodsexperiments conducted to manipulate the brain and determine the consequences of that manipulation: does a change in the brain create a change in behavior? Does a change in behavior create a change in the brain?
  22. 22four typical methods to study the brainneuroanatomy, lesion studies, measuring brain activity via neurophysiology or imaging, brain stimulation (activation or inhibition)
  23. 23neuroanatomy general definitionstructures identified, connections determined
  24. 24lesion studies general definitionrelating structure to function by studying lesions
  25. 25measuring brain activity general definitiondetermine what parts of the brain are active during different behaviors, neurophysiology to measure electrical activity, imaging methods such as CAT, PET, MRI, fMRI
  26. 26brain stimulation general definitionturning neurons on (activation) or off (inhibition) to induce behavioral change
  27. 27histologystudy of the fine structure of the brain using thin sections viewed under the microscope
  28. 28light microscopywhat early histologists used and is still being used to magnify images from thin sections/slices of stained tissue
  29. 29electron microscopy (EM)highly magnified view of synapses, organelles, etc. in very thin sections of tissue
  30. 30confocal and 2-photon microscopyuse of lasers to penetrate tissue and provide detailed images throughout the tissue
  31. 31general stainscertain dyes developed from chemicals and pigments that stain components of cells
  32. 32Nissl stainsa stain for myelin to identify axon bundles, fiber tracts, white matter
  33. 33DAPIstains nuclei of all cells
  34. 34Golgi stainfills the entire neuron to allow complete dendritic "trees" to be seen (used by Cajal and Golgi)
  35. 35immunohistochemistry (IHC)use of antibodies to localize specific proteins- brain slices are exposed to an antibody for the protein. The antibody is linked to a dye that allows the antibody, bound to the protein, to be seen under a microscope
  36. 36CT scancomputerized tomography: x-rays are projected through head. Different tissues absorb differently. Detector records what comes through, used for localizing defects
  37. 37MRImagnetic resonance imaging: different parts of the brain "resonate" at different frequencies to a magnetic field passed through the brain in 3D; clearer structural image than CT
  38. 38PETpositron emission tomography: measures how active a brain area is and is often used in combination with CT to provide structural information, need to inject radioactive substances which are taken up more by active cells than inactive cells, scanner detects radiolabeled cells/regions
  39. 39lesion/inactivation methodsdetermining consequences of inactivating brain function by inflicting damage, creating brain altering mutation, or temporarily turning off brain activity
  40. 40unintentional brain defect/damage due to trauma/infectionstudy of humans who have sustained brain damage by accident, injury, illness, etc, as well as iatrogenic surgical "improvements," study the behavioral deficiencies of people after damage and relate the deficit to the function of the parts of brain destroyed
  41. 41unintentional brain defect/damage due to genetic mutation in humansmany disorders can be studied, also risk genes and presence of specific alleles
  42. 42unintentional brain defect/damage due to genetic mutation in micebehavioral genetics: looking at different strains of mice to identify differences in behavior
    spontaneous mutations: describe phenotype and then try to identify what the genotype is
  43. 43directed/intentional brain changesbrain damage is inflicted (or activity inhibited) at specific site and behavioral consequences are examined.
  44. 44creating brain lesionspermanent- tracts, destruction or removal
    temporary- chemical or TMS in humans
  45. 45creating brain mutationsuse chemicals or irradiation to induce random mutations in genes, study effects of damage and then try to identify what is mutated, also targeted mutations to known gene to figure out mutation from gene inflicted
  46. 46techniques to examine localization of brain function in humansEEG, PET, fMRI
  47. 47EEG- old method but still valuable. Very poor spatial resolution but good temporal resolution. Easy to use and the least invasive
  48. 48PET scan- Subject is injected with a radioactive version of a sugar. Active cells use more sugar and a scanner finds areas that are most radioactive, indicative of areas being used the most
    - can also be used to find disturbed areas (lesions, tumors), psychological disorders (dopamine hyperactivity), and to localize brain regions that are engaged during different behaviors or cognitive processes.
  49. 49fMRItechnique that enables brain activity to be assessed by measuring increases in blood flow to active areas of the brain.
  50. 50advantages of fMRI over PETAdvantages over PET:
    - nothing has to be injected
    - structural and functional image in same image
    - better spatial resolution
    - monitors change in real time (unlike PET, which takes minutes).
  51. 51techniques employed to examine localization of brain activity in animalsneurophysiology (in vivo or in vitro), immediate early genes, Ca++ imaging
  52. 52neurophysiologyelectrical recording of brain activity
  53. 53in vivo vs in vitroin vivo (recording from a live animal) vs in vitro (record from a brain slice preparation)
  54. 54intracellular neurophysiologymicroelectrode impaled into a single cell - animal must be immobile (usually anesthetized). Can record action potentials.
  55. 55extracellular neurophysiologymicroelectrode placed into CSF - record voltage changes occurring from adjacent neuron(s) activity
  56. 56immediate early genes (IEG)genes that are activated very rapidly when a cell received a signal- used to map the neural pathway for the response to a given stimulus
  57. 57Ca++ imaginginvolves chemically linking a molecule that can bind Ca++ ions to a molecule with fluorescent properties- increased fluorescence means increased influx of calcium, which means greater activity.
  58. 58brain stimulation with electrical stimuli- classic studies done by Penfield in the 1960’s in awake patients
    - newer methods: Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
  59. 59Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)implant permanent electrodes into the brain that can be activated by a stimulator, used increasingly to treat depression etc. but still kind of unknown how it works lol
  60. 60optogeneticsnow widely used method to turn neurons on or off with light, such proteins can be activated by specific wavelengths of light
  61. 61examples of proteins that can be activated by specific wavelengths of light- channelrhodopsin: Ca++/Na+ channel that produces EPSPs upon activation
    - halorhodopsin: Cl- channel that produces IPSPs upon activation
  62. 62sensory transductionconverting information from and about the environment into electrical signals that the brain can use to help create perceptions about our outside world
  63. 63labeled line idea of sensory processingparticular neurons are activated only by a specific stimulus, kind of like the grandmother cell concept
  64. 64receptive fieldrefers to the stimuli in the environment (including the specific location and magnitude of the stimulus) that are necessary to activate a particular neuron
  65. 65pattern processing idea of sensory processingsensory receptors may respond to multiple stimuli to different degrees, and the brain needs to decode the pattern of inputs to identify a stimulus
  66. 66the law of continuitythe brain's tendency to create (perceive) continuous patterns from incomplete/weak stimuli
  67. 67multimodal integrationhow information from the different senses is combined/integrated by the brain to form perceptions
  68. 68hearingthe detection of air vibrations
  69. 69frequencyperceived as pitch- between 20 and 20000 Hz can be detected by the human ear
  70. 70amplitude or intensityperceived as loudness
    - measured in decibels (dB): dB are measured in a logarithmic scale, so “twice as loud” is not double the decibels
    - a sound that is twice as loud is generally about 10 dB higher
  71. 71timbrecomplexity of sound- includes the fundamental frequency (the lowest sound) with the associated harmonics (multiples of the fundamental frequency)
  72. 72three parts of the earouter, middle, and inner ear
  73. 73outer earincludes the pinna and the canal to (but not including) the tympanic membrane (‘eardrum’)
  74. 74pinnacollects, directs and alters sound, emphasizing transmission of frequencies in range of human speech (3-5 kHz)
  75. 75spectral filteringdone by pinna, the same sound from a different location will produce different deflections
  76. 76middle earincludes the tympanic membrane plus the ossicles (bones) that connect the membrane to the cochlea (snail, Greek)
  77. 77tympanic membranevibrates due to pressure changes. Vibrations are in turn transferred to the ossicles
  78. 78ossicles3 tiny bones—malleus, incus and stapes (a.k.a. the hammer, anvil and stirrup)—in an air-filled chamber that are in contact with each other
  79. 79malleusattaches to the tympanic membrane and connects, via the incus to the stapes
  80. 80footplateattaches to the cochlea at the oval window, where it transfers vibrations to the fluid-filled inner chambers of the cochlea
  81. 81ossicles functionto take a large movement of the eardrum and convert it to smaller but stronger vibrations at the oval window
  82. 82inner earincludes the cochlea plus the labyrinth, which is not involved in hearing, but is part of the vestibular system involved in balance and body equilibrium
  83. 83cochleaabout 4 mm diameter in humans. Consists of a fluid-filled, coiled tube, like a straw wrapped around a pencil tip 2.5 times
  84. 843 chambers in cochleathe scala vestibula, scala media and the scala tympani which are separated by Reissner’s membrane and the basilar membrane complex
  85. 85perilymphfluid in the s. vestibuli and tympani
  86. 86endolymphfluid in the s. media, high conc of K+
  87. 87Organ of Corticontains the hair cells that represent the auditory receptors
  88. 88round window membrane- sound vibrations are transferred to fluid vibrations by the stapes at the oval window
    - liquid can’t be compressed, so for vibrations to occur within the enclosed cochlea, there must be an outlet for the pressure
  89. 89basilar membrane- push-pull of sound waves creates waves in the basilar membrane
    - the basilar membrane is like a flipper – narrow and stiff at the base; wider and floppier at the apex
    - the membrane vibrates maximally at different places dependent on the frequency
    - high frequencies vibrate at the stiffer base; lower freqs travel to the end and vibrate most at the floppy apex
  90. 90place code for frequency detection- movement of floppy apex = low freq
    - movement of base = high freq.
  91. 91organ of Corticonsists of a single row of ~3500 inner hair cells (IHC) and 3 rows of ~10-15,000 outer hair cells (OHC), along with supporting cells
  92. 92outer hair cellsthe largest cilia are embedded in a flap of thin tissue called the tectorial membrane
  93. 93inner hair cellscilia are not connected to the tectorial membrane, but move in phase with the motion of the endolymph
  94. 94tip linksfilaments associated with K+ / Ca++ channels in cilia
    - at rest, the tension on channels is weak and they are mostly closed, allowing little influx of K+ / Ca++
  95. 95tension and depolarization/hyperpolarizationincreased tension  channel open  depolarization;
    decreased tension  channel closed  hyperpolarization
    - depolarization of hair cell results in K+ / Ca++ influx and release of glutamate onto postsynaptic fibers from the cochlear nerve ganglion (also called the spiral ganglion).
  96. 96cochlear nerve ganglioncluster of cell bodies of neurons adjacent to cochlea that provide afferent innervation to hair cells (i.e., these fibers receive information from the hair cells)
  97. 97IHC functions- axons from IHCs are thick and myelinated, versus thin and unmyelinated for OHCs.
    - IHCs required for basic hearing—encoding of pitch and timbre
    - absence leads to deafness
  98. 98OHC functions- OHCs act as amplifiers, particularly for low-intensity stimuli by changing the response properties of the basilar membrane:
    -OHCs can contract when depolarized, which changes how the basilar membrane moves
    - movement produces “otoacoustic emissions”
    - total absence of OHCs leads to severe loss of hearing sensitivity, but not total deafness
  99. 99important auditory pathwayVCN  bilateral superior olivary nuclei (pons)  projections form lateral lemniscus to the inferior colliculus  medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)  auditory cortex
  100. 100auditory cortex- core region (primary area)
    - belt and parabelt regions (association areas)
    - output pathways to rest of brain follow anterior and posterior streams, each carrying different types of information
  101. 101posterior streamsound localization
  102. 102anterior streamidentifies and distinguishes between different sounds
  103. 103encoding of frequencyfor most frequencies, this is encoded by the region of basilar membrane vibration
    - this code is maintained into the auditory cortex: called tonotopy
    - low frequency (< 200 Hz) encoding based more on firing rate at apical end: rate coding
  104. 104encoding intensitymore intense stimuli move basilar membrane over greater distance and with greater magnitude, activating more hair cells in two related ways:
    - rate of neuronal firing (action potentials/sec)
    - number of neurons firing – low frequencies (below 200 Hz)
  105. 105encoding locationseveral different methods are used--
    - intensity differences – head blocks some sound, so ear closest to sound receives most intense stimulation
    - shape of ear: sounds in front, back, above or below are reflected differently by the folds in the pinna, resulting in an alteration of the timbre mix presented to the eardrum.
    - interaural timing differences: sounds to left or right arrive at left and right ears at different times.
    - good for discriminating discontinuous sounds (like clicks)
    - phase differences: for continuous sounds
    - at any one time, different portions of sound pressure wave arrive at left and right ears, causing differences in phase of vibration at eardrums.
    - sound can’t be directly in front or back
  106. 106dorsal and ventral streams- dorsal stream processes mostly sound location
    - ventral stream processes mostly pitch judgments
  107. 107lightelectromagnetic radiation in the range of 380 – 760 nm (blue to red), where nm (nanometers) refers to the distance between peaks of each wave
  108. 108visible spectra for different animalsbees can see into the ultraviolet range (<380 nm), and certain snakes can "detect" infrared signals (>760 nm)
  109. 109huethe wavelength
    - all visible wavelengths = ‘white’ light
  110. 110brightnessintensity
  111. 111saturationpurity of the light source (i.e., how many different colors/wavelengths are present
  112. 112saccadescranial nerves that regulate the fine, jerky movements of the eye
  113. 113pursuit movementssteady and slow movements
  114. 114conjunctivamembranes that prevent materials from getting behind the eye and into the body
  115. 115sclerawhite, opaque outer layer (sclera) surrounds most of the eye, except for the front
  116. 116corneatransparent and is where light enters
    - causes slight bending (refraction) of light as it enters the liquid (vitreous humor) that fills the eye
  117. 117iriscolored ring of muscle behind the cornea
    - contracts or relaxes to regulate light entering the eye
  118. 118pupil‘hole’, wihich gets bigger or smaller depending on the level of light, is the pupil
  119. 119lenslayered and transparent
    - its shape is controlled by ciliary muscles to cause an image to be focused on the retina at the back of the eye: called accommodation
    - disruption of focus can occur, which can create common conditions such as near- and far-sightedness and astigmatism
    - often due to misshapen development of the eyeball (near and far sighted) or cornea or lens (astigmatism)
  120. 120retinalining of the eye that transduces light into neural signals. Consist of several different cell types and other structural features
  121. 121vitreous humorclear fluid that fills the lens
  122. 122rods100 million/retina that are responsible for vision in dim light (not responsive to color)
    - highly sensitive to light
    - poor focus or acuity
    - found everywhere except the back of the eye
  123. 123cones4 million/retina that are less sensitive to light than rods, but respond to color
    - responsible for acuity (sharpness of vision)
    - located almost entirely at the center of the retina at the back of the eye: fovea
    - need more light to activate (less sensitive)
  124. 124bipolar cellsform synapses with photoreceptors
    - within the layer of bipolar cells are horizontal and amacrine cells, which transmit information laterally, modulating responses of the photoreceptors
  125. 125ganglion cellssynapse with bipolar cells. Axons of these cells bundle together to form the optic nerve, which exits the back of the eye in a place called the optic disk
    - there are no photoreceptors at the optic disk, so this is what creates the “blind spot”
  126. 126inner segment of photoreceptspecialized to contain many mitochondria
  127. 127outer segment of photoreceptorconsists of stacks of light-sensitive disks (lamellae)
  128. 128photopigmentspack the lamellae, consist of retinal and an opsin
  129. 129rods opsinrhodopsin
  130. 130cones opsinone of 3 different types of photopsins that absorb different wavelengths of light (blue, red, green)
  131. 131graded potential- opsins produce events that lead to a graded potential that affects release of neurotransmitter to the bipolar cells, which in turn, affect ganglion cell firing
    - this event represents transduction
  132. 132hyperpolarization and depolarization- light causes photoreceptors to be hyperpolarized
    - low light: photoreceptors depolarized
  133. 133receptive fieldfor any neuron in the visual system, the RF is the precise area within the visual field that when stimulated by light affects the activity in that neuron
    - the visual field is what we see at any one moment (all the light that falls on the retina)
  134. 134RFs in photoreceptors and bipolar cellsspots of light in particular location that affects their activity; in bipolar cells, some are depolarized and others are hyperpolarized by light in their RF
  135. 135ganglion cell responses to lightdifferent in one location vs. another- there and on and off center
  136. 136on-center, off-surround celllight present in the middle excites, and light in the surrounding area inhibits firing
  137. 137off-center, on-surround celllight present in the middle inhibits, while light in the surrounding area excites firing
    if light is present in both area or neither area: very minimal response of the GC
  138. 138lateral inhibitionactivated sensory cells inhibit the response of their neighboring cells, enhancing the contrast between regions of differing light/darkness
  139. 139two theories of color codingtrichromatic theory and opponent process theory
  140. 140trichromatic theory(supported by studies done by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz)
    - early experiments showed that people a single color could be created using various intensities of 3 “primary” wavelengths
    - many years later it was shown that cone cells are preferentially responsive to one of 3 primary colors/hues:
    - cone cells are referred to as short, medium, or long (S, M, or L) based on the wavelength they respond best to (which depends on the opsin they contain)
    - common forms of color blindness occur in people that lack one of the types of cones cells
  141. 141opponent process theory(proposed by Ewald Hering)
    - one observation that the trichromatic theory couldn’t explain was the phenomenon of color afterimages:
    - afterimages are the continued presence of an image after viewing an original image
    - Hering’s opponent process theory argues that cone cells are linked to respond to pairs of ‘colors’:
    - red/green and blue/yellow and black/white
    - each color in a color pair inhibits activity of the other
  142. 142pairs of colors- red/green and blue/yellow and black/white
    - each color in a color pair inhibits activity of the other
    - years later it was shown that ganglion cells (GCs) that respond to colors have ON-center/OFF-surround and OFF-center/ON-surround receptive fields, with specific color pairs involved:
    - GCs are activated by one color in the center and inhibited by the other color in the surround: red versus green and yellow versus blue GCs
    - this theory accounts for color afterimages
  143. 143optic nervecarries visual information to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus. The LGN in turn sends output to the visual, or striate cortex
  144. 144optic chiasm- the optic nerve divides outside the eye at the optic chiasm, where half of the axons from each eye go to the contralateral side, and half go to the ipsilateral side.
    - this insures that both sides of the brain get information from each eye
    - this also explains why we don’t have a blindspot with input from both eyes, as light in the visual field always lands on a different place on the retina of each eye
  145. 145retinotopicadjacent areas in the retina project to adjacent areas in the LGN, which project to adjacent areas in the striate cortex
    - other pathways from the retina to the brain control circadian rhythms and eye movements, and are not otherwise involved in visual perception
  146. 146lateral generate nucleus organization- 6 cellular layers, but each layer receives input from only one eye. The LGN layers are precisely organized such that each specific input
  147. 147inner layers of LGN- layers 1 and 2 are the magnocellular (big cells) layers
    - most responsive to movements and “low frequencies”
    - rods are the primary input
  148. 148outer layers of LGN- layers 3-6 are the parvocellular (small cells) layers
    - most responsive to colors and high frequencies
    - cones are the primary input
  149. 149koniocellular cells- thin sublayers that run next to each of these 6 layers contain “koniocellular” cells that transmit information from blue cone cells
  150. 150input of LGN from the two eyes- contralateral eye sends axons to layers 1, 4, 6
    - ipsilateral eye sends axons to layers 2, 3, 5
  151. 151striate cortex (V1) anatomy- 6 principal layers that are revealed by a cell body stain
    - layered appearance due to differences in the density and type of cell bodies
    - each hemisphere maps contralateral visual field
    - 25% of striate cortex receives info from the fovea
  152. 152receptive fieldssensitive to features more complex than the RF of a single GC
    - most striate cells are sensitive to orientation. Several types were identified by Hubel and Wiesel studying the response of striate cortical neurons to simple light stimuli applied to the retina
  153. 153simple cells (receptive fields)- the RF is in opponent fashion:
    - responds to a bar of light in a specific place and orientation within part of the visual field but inhibited when the bar is in an adjacent area
  154. 154complex cell (receptive fields)- responds to a line of particular orientation that moves within a larger portion of the visual field (not an opponent process)
  155. 155spatial frequencies generallater research suggested that cells were more responsive to spatial frequencies than bars of light:
    - this can be seen by using a sine-wave grating as a stimulus
    - spatial frequency of a sine-wave grating is its variation in brightness
    - orientation is important
    - different information is carried in high and low spatial frequencies
  156. 156high spatial frequenciesdetails, small objects, sharp edges
    - processed more slowly, and become undetectable as distance increases
  157. 157low spatial frequencieslarge areas of light and dark
    - processed more quickly
  158. 158two pathways of visual analysisventral stream and dorsal stream
  159. 159ventral streamthe what pathway
    - passes through V4 then terminates in inferior temporal cortex
    - processes information about what the object is: color, size, shape, etc
  160. 160color perception ventral system- color constancy (V4): constant appearance of color no matter what the lighting conditions
  161. 161form perception ventral stream- inferior temporal cortex: the end of the ventral stream
    - form and color are put together
    - responds best to 3-D objects and complex shapes
  162. 162lateral occipital complex (ventral stream)large part of the visual association cortex that responds to many objects and shapes
  163. 163fusiform face area (ventral stream)part of the inferior temporal cortex that responds to faces
  164. 164prosopagnosiacondition in which people cannot recognize faces because of damage to the FFA (or to improper development of the FFA)
  165. 165visual agnosiainability to perceive/identify a stimulus visually, despite normal visual acuity
  166. 166autism and FFAless interest in viewing faces and less activation of the FFA when doing so
  167. 167William's Syndrome and FFAgenetic mutation on Chromosome 7 (multiple genes deleted)
    - intellectual defects (IQ in the 60’s)
    - strong interpersonal/social interest
    - interest in faces and skill in recognizing
    - larger FFA
  168. 168dorsal streamthe where pathway
    - begins in V2 and ascends into the posterior parietal cortex
    - input is mostly magnocellular
  169. 169perception of movement (dorsal stream)- neurons in area V5 (or MT, for medial temporal) respond to movement
    - inputs: from V1, V2 and the superior colliculus (involved in visual reflexes and the reflexive control of eye movements)
    - outputs: MST (medial superior temporal), which responds to complex movement
    - radial and circular movements
    - perception of optic flow (change in position of objects in a scene as we move)
  170. 170optic flowchange in position of objects in a scene as we move
  171. 171akinetopsiadamage to MT/MST: akinetopsia (can’t perceive movement)
  172. 172form from motion- “form from motion” detected from point light displays
    - viewing these displays activates a small region on ventral bank of the posterior end of the superior temporal sulcus
    - same brain area is activated even in people “imagining” such displays
  173. 173perception of spatial location (dorsal stream)importance for identifying where objects are but especially for visually guided movements (so, should this be called a how pathway?)
  174. 174intraparietal sulcusfound within the posterior parietal lobe
    - regions around the sulcus are important for visual attention and control of saccadic eye movements, as well as visual control of reaching, pointing, grasping and manipulating (hands)
    - required for knowing where objects are in space—both the size and location—to allow direction of movements to the proper place
  175. 175bottom-up processingperception results from the brain responding to the vast amount of sensory information presented to it
  176. 176top-down processingperception results from the brain responding to the vast amount of sensory information presented to it
  177. 177sexbiological characteristics
  178. 178genderwhat society views as masculine or feminine
  179. 179genotypic sex23rd (and last) pair of chromosomes: male XY and female XX
  180. 180phenotypic sexthe physiology, anatomy and behavior of the individual
    - the tendency is to define specific categories of male and female phenotypes, but because many individuals don’t fall into all-male or all-female categories, the male vs female distinction can be blurred
  181. 181gonad development XYY chromosome  sry gene  Sry protein (testis-determining factor)  primordial gonad develops into testes
  182. 182gonad development XXin the XX fetus (female): no Sry protein is produced  the primordial gonad develops into the ovaries
  183. 183bipotential gonad- tissue destined to become the gonads is initially the same in XX and XY fetuses
    - this “primordial” gonad is termed “bipotential” because it can become either a testis or an ovary
  184. 184organizational hormone effectseffects of hormones on development
    - most of these effects are permanent—cannot reverse
    - characterized by critical periods after which these effects no longer occur. At this point, activational effects of hormones become important.
  185. 185activational hormone effectseffect of hormone on matured, developed tissue later in life
    - effects generally reversible
  186. 186hormones produced by testesanti-Mullerian hormone and testosterone
  187. 187anti-Mullerian hormoneinhibits development of the Mullerian system
  188. 188testosterone- causes proliferation of the Wolffian system, which are structures present in fetuses of both sexes. These develop into the
    - internal male sex organs: vas deferens, epididymus, seminal vesicles)
  189. 189dihydrotestosteronecauses development of male external genitalia (penis, scrotum)
  190. 190"female" development- no Y chromosome, so an ovary develops
    - no AMH is present, so the Mullerian system proliferates:
    - internal female sex organs: fallopian tubes, uterus, and most of vagina (internal portion)
    - Wolffian system does not develop (no T is present)
    - external genitalia of the female develop in absence of any hormone present
  191. 191secondary sex characteristicsrequire secretion of hormones when puberty is reached
  192. 192gonadotropin-releasing hormone- at puberty, release of the hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the brain starts to increase in both sexes
    - GnRH is released from neurons in the hypothalamus and acts on cells in the pituitary gland;
    - in response, the pituitary gland cells release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) into the bloodstream that stimulate the gonads of both sexes to produce their respective hormones
  193. 193testes and GnRHproduce androgens, male-typical sex steroid hormones like T
    facial and axillary hair, muscle development, genital and muscle growth, larynx growth, etc.
  194. 194ovaries and GnRHproduces estrogens, female-typical sex steroid hormones like estradiol (E):
    - breast and genital growth; deposition of body fat, cyclic release of hormones that underlies the estrous cycle seen in many female mammals
    - estrous cycle: a repeating period of physiological and behavioral changes associated with reproduction:
    - mating and impregnation occur only during a limited period
    - if mating does not occur, the cycle repeats (depending on the species
    - no blood is shed (tissue is resorbed)
  195. 195the menstrual cycle- mating not limited to a certain phase of the cycle
    - shedding of the uterine wall causes blood to be released
  196. 196copulatory behaviorsstereotyped mating behaviors, particularly in rodents, depend on activational effects of different hormones that operate on the brain
  197. 197male copulatory behaviorsreproductive behaviors are those that involve seeking a mate, sometimes competing for them, and ultimately copulation.
    -in rodents, most are due to Testosterone (T):
    - acts of copulation are a stereotyped series of behaviors that are typically consistent and easily quantified from animal to animal
    - remove gonads, behaviors are reduced
    - add T to castrated males: behaviors restored
  198. 198female copulatory behaviors: reproductive behaviors are cyclic in many females (including humans), controlled by hormones produced by the ovary and pituitary gland
    - rodents: components of mating can be categorized into behaviors
    - proceptivity (interest in the male), attractivity (interest by the male), and receptivity (postures for copulation)
    - these behaviors are stereotyped and regulated by hormones:
    - estradiol + progesterone (E+P) produced by ovary
    - remove gonads, behaviors go away; restored by E + P replacement
  199. 199female behavioral phenotypedevelops in absence of hormones
  200. 200male behavioral phenotypenormally, males are behaviorally masculinized and behaviorally defeminized by the presence of hormones at birth:
    - if you castrate male newborn to remove the source of T and then give
    - T in adulthood: animal no longer displays male sexual behaviors (less male-like)
    - E + P in adulthood: animal exhibits female sexual behaviors (more female-like)
    - so, castration of male newborn prevents normal processes of masculinization and defeminization
    - this can be prevented if the castrated newborn is also given a single dose of T at the time of castration
    - indicates that T is normally responsible for masculinization (appearance of male sexual characteristics) as well as defeminization (prevention of the appearance of female sexual characteristics).

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Psychology (Physiological Psychology) Flashcards on Physiological Psych: Exam 2, created by Renee Torio on 23/10/2021.
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Renee Torio · Oct 2021
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Oct 26, 2021
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