Ethics

Ethics

1. 1st distinction

   • Ethical (or moral) relativism
     • Subjective
     • Cultural
     • Challenges
       • none of us (no culture) is fallible about moral matters?
         • There is no right or wrong (only opinion)
       • No person's (or culture) is better or worse than others?
       • Relativism cannot account for moral progress
     • Why??
       • Tolerance
       • moral claim are not empirically justifiable
   • Ethical (or moral) objectivism

2. Utilitarianism

   • Consequentialist doctrine
   • Impartiality (Everyone's happiness is equally important)
   • Bentham (only quantity matters)
   • Mill (Quality matters/ high vs. lower pleasure)
   • Challenges
     • Happiness is not the only thing matters
       • Hedonism is not necessary
         • provide a finite list of human good, / open ended / goodness=preferences
     • Consequences are not all that matter
       • rights matter
       • Backward-looking reasons matter
     • To be equally concerned for everyone is ..
       • Too demanding
       • require us to abandon special relationships with friends and fam
     • Principle of utility is a guide for choosing rules, not acts
       • Act-utilitarianism (classical)
         • An act is morally right if, of all possible acts available to the agent at the time, it is the act which leads to the most well-being overall
       • Rule-utilitarianism
         • An act is morally right if it conforms to rules the general compliance with which would lead to the most well-being over all
     • common sense can't be trusted

3. Kantian Ethics

   • There are moral rules that hold absolutely (without exception)
     • Hypothetical imperatives
       • hold on having relevant desire
     • Categorical imperatives
       • unconditional (all moral imperatives)
   • Intention matter
     • Motive of duty (only moral worth)
     • Motive of inclination
   • Challenges
     • The notion that we have obligations that hold without exception is inconsistent with out considered moral judgement
     • It is logically untenable to hold that moral rules are absolute
   • Formulation
     • Act only on principles that we could universalize without contradiction
       • Maxim
         • It is impossible to conceive of a world wherein everyone acted on that maxim.
         • We cannot consistently wish everyone to act on that maxim
     • Act in a way that you always treat humanity
       • Every person is worthy of respect because we are: rational beings, capable of reasons and automous beings, capable of acting and choosing independent of desires/ interests etc.
         • Each person deserves the same measure of respect as any other

4. R.W. Ross

   • Recognizes plurality of prima facie moral duties
     • Prime facie duties sometimes come into conflict, and some duties will override others
     • Fidelity, Reparation, gratitude, Non-injury, Harm prevention, beneficence, self-improvement, justice
       • Use best judgement to take priority
   • Challenge
     • Not a good guide for action

5. Virtue Ethics

   • Normative ethical theory focused on virtues or character
     • Virtues: A character trait, well-entrenched disposition
       • Virtuous person does right things
         • Intentionally
         • or a reason
         • The reason must be in some sense that the action is worth doing for its own sake
         • involves feeling
         • Need phronesis
           • enables virtuous person to “hit upon the mean” in actions
           • form of practical knowledge/ allows you to make sound choices in life
           • The person with phronesis has a true grasp of eudaimonia
       • 7Ways to fall short of virtue (eg. lying)
         • Do what you know to be dishonest
         • Do what is honest, but not for the right reasons
         • Do what is honest with the wrong emotion
         • Do what is dishonest, not believing, or realizing or “seeing” that it is
         • Fail to do what is honest on an occasion that called for a particular honest action because of failure to see such an action was called for
         • Do what is honest when you should not have, (e.g. in circumstances where honesty is contrary to some other virtue)
         • Do what is honest, but botch manner of doing it.
       • (eg. Benevolence, civility, compassion, conscientiousness, cooperativeness, courage, courteousness, dependability, fairness, friendliness, generosity, honesty, industriousness)
       • Doctrine of the mean
         • To each virtue there corresponds two opposing vices, with virtue lying in between them
         • the mean in actions and feelings, which involves having the appropriate feelings on… the right occasions about the right things towards the right people for the right end in the right way
   • Eudaimonia
     • Chief/highest good for human beings / translated as happiness, flourishing, wellbeing

6. Thomas Hobbes

   • Social contract theorist : Moral rules are rules rational individuals would agree to for their mutual benefit.
     • Enter into contract to escape state of nature = state of war
       • We are so similar in natural physical/mental capacities that no one naturally enjoys dominance over other people/things
       • We have same basic needs: food, shelter, water, etc. Scarcity of these things
       • We are primarily self-interested, and have strong desire for self-preservation
     • Moral rules are a tool that allow people to escape the state of nature. We agree to constrain our behaviour in accordance with certain rules, in order to live better than we otherwise would.
   • Challenges
     • Does not explain all of morality
     • Where there are no agreements, nothing would be moral or immoral.

7. John Rawls

   • Not a complete ethical theory, but a theory of distributive justice (just distribution of goods)
   • Social contract theorists think that just principles of distribution arise from contract between the people they govern.
     • principles of distributive justice can be derived from hypothetical agreement, not actual one
       • Veil of ignorance
         • no one is advantaged or disadvantaged in the choice of principles by the outcomes of natural chance or the contingency of social circumstances
       • Original position
         • no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does any one know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like
       • Two principles (apply to basic structure of society)
         • The principle of maximal equal basic liberties: Each person is to have maximal equal basic liberties.
         • The principle of fair equality of opportunity: Each person should have a meaningful opportunity to attain employment, education, and positions of power.
           • The difference principle: There should be social and economic equality, unless inequality benefits everyone, especially those in the worst off group.
           • Fundamental rights and liberties cannot be compromised for economic advantage
   • Challenges
     • Difference principle is not the best way to achieve tolerable situation for worst off
     • Difference principle is unfair