Henry VIII's Foreign Policy

Henry VIII's Foreign Policy

1. 1509-14

   • France
     • Henry’s reign began with a conflict of interests between him and his father’s councillors
     • In 1510 they renewed the Treaty of Etaples
       • Charles VIII paid England compensation for Henry having to recruit an army to invade France
     • Henry signalled his different intentions by commissioning a translation of the life of his warlike predecessor, Henry V
     • He sent Christopher Bainbridge the Archbishop of York to Rome to persuade the Pope to enter an allegiance against the French
       • Led to the creation of The Holy League (anti french alliance)
     • Henry was being manipulated by his father-in-law, Ferdinand of Aragon
       • In 1512 Henry sent an army of 10,000 to southwest France which achieved nothing,
         • was just a diversion by Ferdinand which enabled him to conquer Navarre
     • In 1513 Henry invaded north east France
       • won the Battle of the Spurs, captured Therouanne and Tournai
         • Whilst he saw this as a major success, historians like Geoffrey Elton have claimed it was nothing more than a futile sideshow won the Battle of the Spurs, captured Therouanne and Tournai
     • His military exploits in France in 1513 gained him relatively little altogether
       • The renegotiated French pension was lost
       • Tournai was sold back to the French for less than the English had paid for it
   • Scotland
     • In 1513 at The Battle of Flodden King James IV of Scotland crossed the border with his forces
       • was defeated by a small and hurried English army led by the Earl of Surrey
     • James was killed along with lots of the Scottish nobility
       • Infant James V took control of Scotland
     • Henry did little to build on the advantage Flodden gave him
       • The war was costly and Henry liquidated his father’s assets to pay for it
       • There were rumblings about taxation in Yorkshire
       • Henry didn't invade Scotland despite their vulnerable monarch
         • possibly for fear of French retaliation so early in his reign
   • Summary
     • A further campaign was considered in 1514 but was abandoned when Ferdinand and Maximilian made their own peace with France
     • Wolsey was left to pick up the pieces and he did so quite skilfully
       • Recovered the Etaples pension
       • Secured a marriage alliance between Henry’s little sister Mary and the King of France, Louis XII:

2. 1514-26

   • Key Themes
     • There is no clear theme to foreign policy but clear points can be made
       • England remained a minor power that couldn't really compete with France and Spain
       • Henry overestimated English power and Wolsey had to frame the details of policy on this assumption
       • The auld alliance between France and Scotland stayed strong
         • Anglo relations with France (positive or otherwise) tended to lead to increased tensions with Scotland
     • By the end of 1514, Henry had run out of money but continued to operate a war like attitude,
       • Meant that he couldn't exploit the weakness of James V
       • He sought peace with France through the marriage alliance but this was short lived
   • France and Scotland
     • When Louis XII died Francis I took control of France
       • Henry saw this young, charismatic King as a key rival
     • In 1516 Charles Vbecame Ferdinand’s successor and he sought an alliance with the French along with Maximillian through the Treaty of Cambrai
       • England was dangerously isolated
       • Francis used this isolation to undermine Anglo-Scottish relations
         • The Duke of Albany (heir presumptive to the Scottish throne) was a member of the French nobility
           • Albany consolidated his position by being appointed regent to the Scottish throne
             • Henry and Wolsey were very concerned by this but were somewhat reassured when they realised the poisonous divisions among the Scottish nobility
               • BUT Henry showed himself incapable of exploiting decisions and weaknesses in Scotland
     • Wolsey had huge success when in ending England’s isolation with the Treaty of London in 1518
       • he emerged as the leading diplomat in Western Europe
       • Prompted by Pope Leo X (who wanted a United Christian front against the Ottoman Turks) the treaty began with peace negotiations between England and France
         • Developed into a non-aggression pact between England, France, Spain, the HRE
     • Although future events suggest the treaty was meaningless, at the time it was of huge significance
       • diplomatic coup for Wolsey
       • Pope made Wolsey papal legate (personal representative of the Pope – control over the Church in England) in 1518
     • The new friendship between France and England continued
       • England returned Tournai but the French agreed to pay a pension to compensate for this loss
       • The French agree to keep Albany out of Scotland
     • argued that it was actually the French’s fear of the Spanish King Charles becoming the Holy Roman Emperor that led to their change in attitude but it was still a success
     • Good relations were reinforced with the Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 152-
       • most expensive and extravagant diplomatic encounter of the period
         • cost the treasury £15,000
       • week meeting between Henry and Francis that took place in a town in France held by the English
       • Each King and their people set up a lavish base in the decorated pavilion and entertainment and games between the country's ensued
     • In diplomatic terms nothing was really achieved by this event and when conflict arose between Francis and Charles in 1521, Henry was unsure who to side with
     • With Wolsey’s advice, the English negotiated the Treaty of Bruges August 1521 with France for a number of reasons
       • Henry could improve relations with the Pope who wanted France to have less control over Italy
       • He believed he would gain more French territory
       • deal included a marriage alliance between the Emperor and Henry’s daughter Mary
     • In 1522 and 1523, peace ceased and the English invaded France but they were fairly unsuccessful but costly
       • Parliament was not happy with granting extra revenue for this
     • Henry showed his lack of strategy when he tried to benefit from the emperor’s defeat of the French at The Battle of Pavia in 1525 by suggesting that he and Charles launch a joint French invasion to gain territory
       • Charles refused
       • The public didn't support this idea because of the controversy of the Amicable Grant
     • episode had major consequences
       • Henry’s ego was bruised and he had to back down
       • existing resentment towards Charles grew when the marriage alliance with Mary fell through
       • Wolsey’s domestic prestige was damaged
     • The fracturing of the Anglo-Imperial alliance once again encouraged Henry and Wolsey to pursue relations with France:
       • They lent support to the League of Cognac (used by the Pope to counterbalance excessive power of the Emperor in Italy following the victory at Pavia)
       • a bad time to be on the wrong side of the emperor and the problems caused by The King’s Great Matter created new complications that would bring down Wolsey and make all of Catholic Europe suspicious of Henry

3. 1527-40

   • The failure of Henry VIII to resolve his ‘Great Matter’ by diplomatic means shows the extent to which England remained a minor power in Europe.
   • Ireland
     • Henry’s problem was that he found it difficult to govern Ireland with Kildare – a dominant Irish nobleman.
       • without him he found it impossible
     • Kildare’s dismissal led to major rebellion in 1534
       • attempt to re-fashion Irish government failed and Ireland became an increasing drain on England’s resources
     • made worse by the scale of resentment amongst the Gaelic Lords
     • 1539 there was an invasion in Pale by two of these nobles – O’Neill and O’Donnell.
     • government eventually regained control and tried to establish it as a separate kingdom in 1541
       • However, the government lacked the resources to follow through with the reforms.
   • Henry and Wolsey were forced by the weak position to make an anti-Imperial alliance with the French at the Treaty of Amiens in 1527
   • Wolsey sought to pressurise the emperor by imposing a trade embargo with the Burgundian land
     • Charles’ retaliation created widespread unemployment and social problems in England, forcing Wolsey to back down
   • Henry had to blame someone else for this failure and this resulted in Wolsey’s fall from power 1529.
   • In 1532 Henry tried to secure his position by making a fragile alliance with France
     • but France was also in a weak position so together they could put little pressure on the Emperor
   • Henry had little alternative but to resolve his ‘Great Matter’ by breaking with Rome
   • Henry was fortunate that the pressure upon his position was reduced in 1536.
     • The death of Catherine of Aragon and the execution of Anne Boleyn opened up the possibility of a renewed alliance with the emperor.
     • The renewal of fighting between the emperor and Francis I reduced the potential danger of England’s isolated position.
   • relief was short-lived and in 1538 Henry’s position had once again weakened
     • Charles and Francis once again buried their differences in the Treaty of Nice and they each agreed to sever connections with England.
     • Pope Paul III published a bull (a letter issued by the Pope) deposing Henry and thereby absolving English Catholics from the need to obey their rule
     • Pope sent envoys to both France and Scotland to rouse support for a Catholic crusade against Henry.
   • Henry’s position was more secure than it appeared.
     • Neither France nor Charles trusted each other and each had more important immediate priorities
   • Henry intended to reassure Catholic opinion in England
     • lead to his marriage with Anne of Cleves.

4. 1540-47

   • Scotland
     • England’s invasion of Scotland in 1542 was met with military success
     • The Scots were forced into military action when faced with demands they couldn't meet
       • They were heavily defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss
     • James V died after hearing news of this defeat leaving his one-week-old daughter Mary as heir to the throne
     • Henry could have launched a full-scale invasion at this point (vulnerability) but his main interest was an invasion of France:
       • He looked to diplomatic pressures as a means of securing his interests in Scotland while he sought military glory in France
     • The Scottish policy became known as ‘rough wooing’
     • Henry sought to marry Prince Edward to Mary
       • At first the Scottish regent (Earl of Arran) supported this policy
       • Soon the English Ambassador in Edinburgh (Sir Ralph Sadler) warned that widespread suspicion of English intention was spreading through Scotland
       • The Scots refused to allow Mary to be brought up in England
     • were formally betrothed according to the terms of the Treaty of Greenwich 1543
       • Arran deserted the English cause and Scottish Parliament refused to ratify the treaty
         • In retaliation Henry ordered the Earl of Hertford to carry out a raid on Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews
     • Henry can be criticised for his Scottish policy for a number of reasons
       • He neglected the opportunity to secure his policy using force in 1542
       • He failed to heed Sadler’s warning about Scottish hostility to his intention
       • His retaliation gave no thought to strategy and simply succeeded in antagonising the Scots further
   • final years of Henry’s reign marks a distinct contrast in the experiences of the previous decade
   • In the 1530s, the key aim of foreign policy had been to minimise the response of foreign powers to thEnglish break from Rome
   • In the 1540s, Henry returned to the aggressive foreign policy typically associated with his early years, launching attacks on Scotland and France
   • France
     • To facilitate the French invasion, Henry agreed an alliance with the emperor
     • Henry set off as head of the army desperate for military glory
     • realised an attempt to March on Paris would likely be unsuccessful despite agreeing to this in the Imperial alliance
       • The English army instead confined itself to the vicinity of Calais and Boulognge
       • By this time the emperor had had enough of the conflict and made separate peace with Francis I
     • Matters got worse for Henry in 1545
       • Francis I sent troops to Scotland to reinforce a possible invasion of England from across the Scottish border
       • The English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor
       • A separate French force landed in the Isle of Wight
       • Henry’s flagship, the Mary Rose, sank in the Solent
     • The French failed to recapture Boulogne and the invasion of northern England never materialised
     • In the end both sides were happy to sue for peace as neither could afford the conflict
       • Peace was agreed in 1546
       • Extraordinary revenue didn't cover the cost so he was forced to sell lots of the Crown Estate, borrow money and debase coinage
         • increasing inflation rates
       • Eric Ives said that ‘following the devices and desires of his own heart’ was a complete disaster for Henry
   • Why did Henry change his policy in the 1540’s
     • 1. Albert Pollard argued in 1902 that Henry’s main purpose was the conquest of Scotland, in order to create a United British Isles
     • 2. In 1966 R.B.Wernham said Henry’s policy was mainly about Scotland but for defensive reason
       • King James V posed a threat to the English throne if Henry died when Edward was young
       • In a war with France, it would be terrible is Scotland allied against Britain
     • 3. John Scarisbrick said in 1968 that Henry was motivated by glory and territorial gains and the invasion of Scotland was to ensure the Anglo-Scottish border was secure when an invasion of France took place
     • Michael Bush said that Henry simply wanted to punish his nephew James V for a number of presumed offences
       • Harbouring English rebels
       • Ignoring pressure from Henry to break with Rome

5. Summary

   • not possible to simply summarise Henry VIII’s foreign policy
   • • aims, successes and strategy were muddled and inconsistent throughout his reign