Memory

Memory

1. Types of Memory

   • Sensory Memory
     • retaining info. from senses and environment (acts as stimuli)
   • Short Term Memory
     • store of info. that we are currently aware of / thinking about
   • Long Term Memory
     • continual storage of info. that is largely outside of our awareness
   • Duration
     • the length of time that info. can retain in the memory with decaying / being replaced
       • Short Term Memory
         • short (max. 30 secs)
       • Long Term Memory
         • potentially for a lifetime
       • Bahrick et al (1875)
       • Walsh & Thomson (1978)

2. Multi-Store Model of Memory

   • Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
     • Sensory Memory
       • Short Term Memory
         • Long Term Memory
           • Retrieval Loop
         • Prolonged Rehersal
   • info. gained from senses (stimuli) can either decay, be replaced or be transferred to STM
     • frequently recalled / revisited in order to be transferred to LTM (maintainence / prolonged rehearsal)
   • Evaluation (AO3)
     • - over simplified (memory is more complex)
     • - does not account for other strategies that people use to remember things
     • - all studies carried out in lab setting (lacks ecological validity, demand characteristics)

3. Encoding

   • initial process of learning / breaking down info. to store in STM or LTM
     • Structual
       • what words look like
     • Phonemic
       • how words sound
     • Semantic
       • what words mean
   • Baddeley (1966)
     • STM = acoustic
     • LTM = semantic

4. Capacity

   • the amount of info. that can be stored in memory at a given time
     • Short Term Memory
       • limmitted
     • Long Term Memory
       • unlimmitted
     • Miller (1956)
       • -/+ 7 items, chunking info.
     • Jacobs (1887)
       • digital span, different for letters / numbers

5. Working Memory Model

   • Baddeley & Hitch (1976)
     • Central Executive
       • directs attention to tasks, main control centre
     • Episodic Buffer
       • general / extra store of info.
     • Phonological Loop
       • stores auditory info. (word length effect, harder to remember longer words)
     • Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
       • stores visual & spatial info.
       • Logie (1995) suggested sub-division
         • visuo-cache store & inner scribe

6. Episodic Memory

   • recalling events / personal episodes / daily happenings

7. Semantic Memory

   • general knowledge / everyday concepts (names of colours, letters etc.)

8. Procedural Memory

   • learnt actions / skills (walking, talking, riding a bike etc.)

9. Explanation for Forgetting

   • Proactive Interference
     • old memory interfering with a new memory
   • Retroactive Interference
     • new memory interfering with an old memory
   • Interference
     • when two pieces of info. conflict with each other (results in forgetting one or both)

10. Eye-Witness Testimony

    • person's ability to give evidence after witnessing a crime
      • Leading Questions
        • a question that encourages the desired response
      • Misleading Info.
        • wording of question can change response
    • Loftus & Palmer (1974)
      • participants watch videos of car accidents, asked questions
        • different verbs gave different responses (e.g. crash, collide etc.)
          • affects accuracy of recall
    • Anxiety
      • an unpleasant state emotional state of fear
        • Chistianson & Hubinette (1993)
          • anxious / threatened people gave more accurate recall
        • Defenbacher et al (2003)
          • stressed / anxious people gave inaccurate recall
        • Loftus et al
          • weapon focus effect (victim focuses on weapon rather than identifying the person - inaccurate recall)

11. The Cognitive Interview

    • technique used for interviewing witnesses to crime (retrieve vital info.)
      • encourages witnesses to recreate the original context
        • Fisher & Geiselman (1992)
          • 1. Report everything
          • 2. Reinstatement of context
          • 3. Repeat events in reverse order
          • 4. Change perspective