Flashcards
cognition
Flashcards do conjunto (102)
- 1functions of memoryroutines and habits
sense of self
problem solving
social functions - 2processing stages of memory1. encoding
2. storage
3. retrieval - 3encoding (memory)learning, studying, putting information "into" memory, can be described as creating patterns (traces) to be stored, occurs in the hippocampus
- 4storage (memory)retaining encoded memory traces, forming a stable, long-term trace
- 5retrieval (memory)recovering stored patterns or traces due to a cue (internal or external)
- 6memory tracepattern of cortical activity which is encoded, stored, and retrieved upon cues
- 7—memory pipeline
- 8sensory memory"quick snapshot" memory, which lasts for just a short time, the first stop on the information processing pipeline
- 9echoic memorysound-byte which is held for 3 seconds
- 10haptic memorybrief memory of touch
- 11iconic memoryexes of this are positive and negative after images,
term for short-lasting visual memory etc - 12george sperlingfamously conducted experiments on how much people can hold in sensory memory from a visual display
- 13short term memoryattended information moves from sensory to this, prefrontal cortex primarily responsible
- 14primacy effecteffect that we recall the first few items in a list better than the rest
- 15recency effectwe recall the last few items on a list (or whatever was presented most recently) better than the other items on the list
- 16chunkinggrouping info to form it into "units", we can remember 7 units so lumping them together makes it easier to remember
- 17visuospatial sketchpadwe have a storehouse for visual info with separate components, with a visual cache that passively holds information about visual identity and features, inner scribe which actively holds information about spatial location, movement and sequences
- 18phonological loopholds sound and verbal info in two components: phonological store and the articulatory control loop
- 19ebbinghaus's forgetting curvecurve which suggests that "forgetting is exoponential", thus memory loss will be largest early on and slow over time
- 20ebbinghaus's spacing effectmemory is better when content is learned spread out over time versus all in one go
- 21decay theory of forgettingsuggests that forgetting happens as a result of time and the decay of memory traces
- 22interference theorysuggests that forgetting occurs because of interfering information
- 23retroactive interference (backward)happens when new information interferes with old information, ex: can't remember old phone number once you get a new one
- 24proactive interferencehappens when previously learned information affects your ability to learn new information, ex: can't remember new phone number because you can only think about your old one
- 25levels of processing theorysuggests that a memory trace is stronger (thus more easily rememberable) based on how many processes were engaged during encoding, thus when we think about something at a higher level (Eg we understand semantic meaning) it is easier to remember than when we try to remember based on sensory details
- 26types of shallow processingstructural information, phoneme information, grapheme information
- 27types of deep processingelaborating on what you're studying, encoding meaning of information, forming an opinion, linking old with new information
- 28self-reference effectsuggests that memory is better when its related to the self, when learning words, participants encoded two conditions, ex: can remember words better when you think about how they relate to/describe yourself
- 29generation effectsuggests memory is better when you generate it, ex: participants in a study retained words better when they generated the letters for them
- 30encoding specificity hypothesissuggests memory is better when the retrieval context (internal/external context) is the same as the encoding environment, ex: study with scuba divers learning words on land and in water
- 31internal contextfactors going on inside of the self for learning, ex: study of drunk versus sober learning
- 32method of locirelating content to place in a "mind palace" in which you picture the things you want to remember in an imaginary place and picture yourself walking around
- 33implicit memoryusing experiences to remember things without thinking about things, eg being scared when you see a big snake
- 34primingWhen prior exposure facilitates information processing without awareness, Ex: word fragment completion test
Participants study a list of words, then complete word fragments, participants are likely to use studied words to complete the fragments without awareness - 35procedural memorytactic knowledge about sequences and information which is hard to verbalize
- 36habitsdeeply linked to procedural memory, activities which rely on explicit memory but with training/exposure become implicit
- 37explicit memorydistinction between episodic and semantic memory
- 38episodic memorybeing able to recall specific events and memories, an important feature of this kind of memory is being able to recall the context in which a memory was learned
- 39semantic memorymemory system which supports knowledge of facts and general information, knowing the context in which it was learned is not important for this kind of memory
- 40memory and hippocampal damagepeople with damage in this region struggle with episodic but not semantic memories
- 41patient KCpatient studied by endel tulving who worked with a patient with damaged episodic memory and still has semantic memory
- 42anoetic consciousnessconsciousness with no awareness or personal engagement, connected to "implicit memory", with this kind of consciousness, you are unaware you are even accessing it
- 43noetic consciousnesssemantic memory, awareness with no personal engagement, essentially accessing information without being personally engaged with it
- 44autonoetic consciousnessconsciousness with awareness AND personal engagament, allows "mental time travel", episodic memory which involves being aware that you are recollecting something
- 45memory traceRepresentation of an encountered event stored in the base (substrate of an encoded memory)
Domain of episodic memory - 46memory schemaDomain of semantic memory
Represents commonalities from overlapping experiences
These are our expectations and beliefs - 47reappearance hypothesisstates that a single memory trace is recalled the same way at each retrieval
I.e that memory is reproduced and not reconstructed - 48flashbulb memoriesVivid memories of significant public events
Often study with 9/11
Or with election of donald trump, or with kobe bryants death etc
Vivid memories of significant events are
Emotionally arousing or shocking → important to us
we have high confidence in these memories even when they are not necessarily very accurate - 49now-print theorystates that since significant experiences are surprising and consequential events, they are “photocopied” and preserved in long term memory
- 50reconstruction/distortion of memoriessince our memories are reconstructed and not simply stored like videos, they are open to distortion every time we retrieve them, making us susceptible to false memories
- 51war of ghosts experimentparticipants read a story about young men hunting seals in a river with unfamiliar details in the story
Didn’t follow cultural script, had a lot of details relevant to people from an indigenous american culture
Examined how the story changed with repeated retrievals
How schemas affect memory is something which has and still is studied - 52Method of repeated reproductionParticipants read the story, recall it 15 minutes later, again at a later time point, again at a later time point
How does the story change → through one person's memory/recollection of it - 53Method of serial reproductionParticipant A recalls the story to participant B who recalls it to participant C
Game of telephone
--> How does it change across people - 54false memoriesResult of memory construction
Details can be added to memories during retrieval
During reconstruction details can be added - 55Misattribution effectRetrieving familiar information from the wrong source (place)
A failure in source monitoring (not remembering where or when accurately) - 56(DRM) paradigmtask in which partipants study a selection of words, are given a test and asked which words they studied, in the test there is one unrelated unstudied word, two studied words and a "lure word" which is similar to what was studied, people often falsely remember this lure word
- 57memory reconsolidationretrieving memories makes them de-stabilized, and thus subjective to change, an adaptive feature of this is that memories can thus be adapted when retrieved and new information is learnt
- 58constructive episodic memorysame processes used to construct the past help us imagine the future, overlap in activated brain regions in people being told to imagine the future vs the past
- 59Quillian’s model of semantic memory organizationsuggests that memory is stored in a network which starts at the most general version (unit) which are connected by pointers and contain specific properties
- 60spreading activation model of semantic memory organizationsuggests info isn't stored from general to specific but through similarity, these similarities are determined by our own experiences of the concepts
- 61lexical decision taskform of semantic priming in which participants are asked if a string of letters is a real word or a non-word, people are faster when followed by a semantically related concept
- 62tip of tongue phenomenonwhen you are aware you know something without being able to process it, occurs more with low frequency terms and names
- 63childhood amnesiainability to recollect memories from early childhood, with many theories behind it
- 64language hypothesis of childhood amnesiasuggests that language facilitates ability to recall → no language = no encoding
- 65Immature brain hypothesis of childhood amnesiasays that hippocampus and prefrontal structures are not fully developed in early childhood and thus memories can’t be formed
- 66reminiscence bumpdistribution of memories which says we remember the most from our late teenage and early adulthood years
- 67memory in older adultsImplicit memory is still intact, semantic memory is intact, episodic memory (and working memory) is impaired
- 68Domain-general cognitive aging theoriesOlder adults have deficits in general executive cognitive processes due to frontal lobe atrophy , older adults are slower at processing information, older adults less able to inhibit irrelevant information when encoding memories
--> Effects both encoding and retrieving memories - 69Associative deficit hypothesis of agingsays that older adults have problems encoding and retrieving associations in memory (Eg matching a face with a name) because these require hippocampal use, but are less impaired at recalling single items which requires less use of the hippocampus, essentially suggests that atrophied hippocampus is the reason that certain elements of memory are impaired while others remain
- 70recollection/rememberingRecognizing and knowing where you learned it, autonoetic consciousness and requires associations between remembered item and context
- 71familiarity/knowingRecognizing something but you cannot consciously recollect anything about its actual occurrence/context when you learned it, does not require association, noetic consciousness
- 72adaptive cognitive agingwe don't all age equally and older adults who are high performing on memory tasks recruit more bilateral regions than young adults and low performing older adults
- 73alzheimer's diseaseProgressive neuro-degenration which begins in the medial temporal lobes (hippocampus), in early stages, episodic memory is impaired but semantic memory is spared, in later stages, decline in ALL forms of memory
- 74semantic dementiaNeurodegeneration that begins in the left anterior temporal lobe, resulting in impairments in semantic memory but spares episodic memory, understanding of self still exists for recently developed memories
- 75ribot's lawtemporal gradation of memories in people with retrograde amnesia, older memories are more spared than newer ones
- 76retrograde amnesiainability to recall events before onset of amnesia
- 77anterograde amneisainabilty to remember events AFTER onset of amnesia
- 78korsakoff’s syndromeboth retrograde and anterograde amnesia together, common in alcoholics and leads people towards "confabulation"
- 79confabulationwhen amnesia patients accidentally lie by "filling in" blank spaces in their memory, only accompanies amnesia with the orbitofrontal cortex is involved
- 80Dissociative amnesiarare psychiatric disorder in which people develop temporary retrograde amnesia as a trauma response
- 81dual-coding theoryour mental representation of events into two categories, a verbal system which deals with words and components like letters, symbols etc and a non-verbal system which deal with components like shape and colour
- 82evidence for dual coding theoryit is easier for people to remember concrete terms (for which their is a verbal and non-verbal component) than abstract ones (for which there is only verbal)
- 83amusiatone deafness caused by abnormalities in the temporal gyrus
- 84modularity and dual codinghigher pattern of activation in right hemisphere for concrete words
- 85special places strategyhiding things in unexpected places to keep them secure
- 86metal rotationschanging the orientation of an image in our brain, will take longer depending on how far we have to rotate it
right lateralised activity - 87mental scanningthe further the distance between two objects represented in the brain the longer it will take to get between them
- 88egocentric perspective transformationorienting yourself in space so that objects are relative to you
- 89synesthesiaSensory experience where a stimulus in one sensory modality invokes a response in other modalities
- 90basic concept biaswe prefer to describe things at a basic level (as opposed to sub or super ordinate) at all levels of expertise
- 91graded organization of conceptseven at the same level of inclusion some are better examples of a concept than others, eg a cow is a better example of a mammal than platypus
- 92probability approach to concept organizationsays that concepts are formed through experience based on similarity, relates to prototype theory and the idea that we have culturally specific basic level concepts
- 93bruner's rule based approach to concept organizationsays that concepts are formed by establishing rules about what constitute membership, under this view there are conjunctive concepts, disjunctive concepts and relational concepts
- 94Conjunctive conceptWhen the thing must hold ALL attributes to make it a member of the concept
Eg a birth mother must be (by sex) a female, AND have a child
Only being one doesn’t qualify you - 95Disjunctive conceptThe thing doesn’t have to hold all attributes to be a member
Eg Fame can be defined in different ways
→ either-or concept - 96Relational conceptThings must have attributes relate to be a member
Eg marriage is defined by the link
When attributes can change, but the concept is defined by the relationship between them - 97Conservative focusing approachfocusing on just one attribute to form a rule, helpful when a negative example is given, less helpful when a positive response is given
- 98Focus gambling approachfocusing on ALL attributes to create a rule, helpful when a positive example is given, less helpful with a negative one
- 99resemblance theories of concept formationless about specific attributes or rules to fit into a concept category, more about general resemblance between objects in a specific category
- 100prototype-based approach of concept formationtheory which says that each category has a prototypical memory to which each other memory is more or less similar to, the prototype is the 'cleanest' example of a category
- 101perceptual symbols systemthe theory which suggests that percpetions and concept knowledge are linked and used to store and access concept information, essentially suggesting they are stored separately and can be accessed by sensory modality
- 102—
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- FlashCards sobre cognition , criado por Grace Gallagher em 12-11-2021.
- Criado por
- Grace Gallagher
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