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personality
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- 1personalityThe distinctive & relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling & acting in response to life situations. internal, structured and organised factors influence personality
- 2predictive power (not subjective truth) important for personality theoriesneeds to...
provide a comprehensive framework for know facts to be incorporated
predict future events
stimulate the discovery of new knowledge - 3psychoanalytic theoryfreud- study hysteria with jean charcot. group of patients showing physical symptoms e.g. paralysis/ blindness. symptoms related to repressed memories & feelings (try hypothesis)
- 4free association & dream interpretationuncovers contents of unconscious
- 5personality is anenergy system
instinctual drives generate psychic energy, constantly seeks release eg. libido - 63 separate but interacting structuresID, EGO ,SUPEREGO
- 7IDinnermost core
only structure present at birth
unconcious
pleasure principle - 8EGOdevelops second
concious
reality principle
"executive of personality" - 9SUPEREGOmoral arm
last to develop
traditional values/ society
control impulse of id
bling quest for moral perfection - 10defence mechanismsunconscious mental operations that minimise anxiety by denying/ distorting reality
eg. repression/ sublimation - 11psychosexual stagesperiods of development in which the ids pleasure seeking tendencies are focussed on specific pleasure-sensitive areas of the body (erogenous zones)
- 12fixationstate of arrested psychosexual development in which instances are focused on a particular theme
- 13oral stage infancymouth
self indulgent/ dependent as adult - 14anal 2-3 yearssatisfaction from elimination (toilet training)
fixation produces compulsions/ obsessive cleaning, rigidness OR extreme messiness/ disorganisation - 15phallic stage 4-5 yearserotic feelings for opposite sex parent
hostility to same sex
oedipus/ electra complex - 16latency 6-12dormant sexual interest
focus on same sex-peer activities - 17genital stage12 years - adulthood
focus on normal, healthy adult sexuality - 18neoanalytic approachesdisagree with certain aspects of freud.. too much emphasis on infantile sexuality
- 19carl jungfreuds successor. people have drive for self improvement
personal unconscious (lives individual experiences)
collective unconscious (memories accumulated throughout history) - 20archetypesinherited tendencies to interpret experiences in certain ways
find expressions in symbols, myths & beliefs across cultures eg. bugs bunny as trickster - 21object relations theoryklein, kerberg & mahler
focus on images/ mental representations that people form of themselves as a result of early experiences with caregivers - 22evaluationdifficult to study in lab
ambiguous/ undefinable concepts
little empirical support
no behavioural predictions - 23humanistic theoryphenomenology= emphasis on primacy of immediate experience
focus attention on present rather than past
embrace positive view of humanity eg. creative potential - 24personal construct theory (Kelly)primary goal is to find personal meaning in the world
- 25personal constructscognitive categories into which people sort out the persons & events in there lives ei. schema
focus on consequences of conturing information (Role construct repertory test assesses individuals personal construct systems by investigating what dimensions people use to categorise important others) - 26Rogers theory of selfself actualisation
- 27the selforganised, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself
- 28self-consistencyan absence of conflict among self-perceptions
- 29congruenceconsistency between self-perceptions and experience
- 30need for positive self regarddesire to feel good about ourselves
- 31conditions of worthconditions that dictate the circumstances under which we approve/disapprove of ourselves
fully functioning persons- individuals close to achieving self-actualisation
cause incongruence between the self and experience
cn foster need to distort important aspects of experience ( anxiety) - 32evaluation...relies too heavily on individuals reports of personal experience
can be measured and tested using positive psychology movement & methods for measuring brain activation - 33The trait perspectivedescribe basic classes of behaviour that define personality
devise ways of measuring individual differences in personality traits
undertand and presict behaviour - 34personality traitsstable, cognitive, emotional & behavioural characteristics of people that help establish individual identities & distinguish themselves from others
- 35lexical approachproposing traits on the basis of words/ concepts from everyday language
- 36factor analysisstatistical tool used to identify clusters of behaviours highly correlated with one another e.g.. retiring, reserved, solitary= introversion
- 37eysencks super traits2 super traits with bipolar dimensions
extravert-intravert
neuroticism (stability-instability) - 385 factor modelOCEAN
measured using NEO-PI - 39evaluationfocuses attention on value of identifying/ classifying/ measuring.
need to focus on how traits interact with each other
focus on description not explanation - 40more research on the self...
- 41self esteemhow positively we feel about ourselves
stable throughout lifetime . correlation of .5-.7 from childhood to old age - 42self verificationneed to confirm self-concept eg. find spouse who praises them
- 43self enhancementstrong persuasive tendency to gain/ perceive positive self image
- 44further types & traitsproposing traits is lexical
- 45carttell 16 personality factors1000ps rate themselves- 16 basic behaviour clusters. tested using 16PF (16 personality factor questionnaire)
- 46personality should not be unchangeablehowever N,O,E decrease. C, A increase
- 47self monitorsattending situational cues & adapting behaviour to what would be most appropriate
- 48biological perspectiveevolution, genetics, nervous system
- 49genetics & personalitymz more similar-Tellegen. looked at twins & 14 different personality traits. Genetic factors account for 40-50% variance. shared home environment accounts for very little.
- 50nervous systemeysnecks model & research on temperament
- 51eysneck extravertion-stability modelbiological basis for personality traits- differences in cuscusontomary levels of arousal-activity in brain and nervous system.
optimal level of arousal in brain/
introverts are over aroused and avoid excitement
suddness in shifts of arousal
neurotic people have nervous shifts in arousal - 52gray 1982 reinforcement sensitive theoryindividual differences in personality originate from variations in sensitivity of biological systems of reward/ punishment.
behavioural approach system (BAS)- sensitive to reward
behavioural inhibition system 9BIS)-sensitive to punishment - 53temperamentindividual differences in emotional and behavioural styles
appear early in life so have biological basis- biological building blocks influence development of personality eg. inhibited v. disinhibited children - 54evaluationcutting edge-stongest scientific research
borkenau 2006 roles of genes- 2% variation
more research needed - 55social-cognitive perspectivebehavioursim emphasises environmental causes- humans are reactors to external events.
learner is not simply a passive reactor- internal processes can't be excluded
combines behavioural & cognitive perspectives to approach human thinking & environment - 56reciprocal determinismperson/ person's behaviour & environment all influence one another in a pattern of two- way causal links
- 573 way reciprocal determinism
- 58rotter 1954likelihood we engage inbehaviour in a given situation is influenced by two factors:
Expectancy: our perception of how likely it is that certain consequences will occur eg. Vote if your vote will have an impact
Reinforcement Value: how much we desire or dread the outcome that we expect the behaviour to produce eg. By voting you get a good candidate that improves your livelihood - 59locus of controlexpectancy concerning the degree of personal control we have in our lives
Internal: life outcomes are under personal control and depend on their own behaviour
External: outcomes have less to do with one’s own efforts than with the influence of external factors - 60rotter I-E scale assesing LOCconsists of 29 pairs of statements.
scale is scored by counting the number of choices consistent with either the internal or the external LOC orientation.
are indicative of greater internal LOC.
1960s African-Americans actively partook in civil rights were more internal.
Locus of control is a generalized expectancy - 61people with internal locus of control;• Behave in a more self-determined fashion
• Achieve better grades
• Are more resistant to social influence
• Experience less depression & anxiety
• Cope with stress in a more active & problem-focused manner - 62self efficacyperson’s beliefs concerning their ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve desired outcomes
High self-efficiency – can achieve desired outcomes - 634 determinants needed for self efficacy1. Previous performance experiences in similar situations
• Shape our beliefs about our capabilities
• Specific to particular situations
Eg. Women who have done defence classes believe they can escape from rapist
2. Observational learning: a similar person achieving a goal increases your self-efficacy to achieve the same goal
eg. Roger bannister breaking ‘4 mile’ mark in oxford. 300 runners do the impossible 2 years later
3. Verbal persuasion (whether or not people believe in us)
4. Emotional arousal that is interpreted as anxiety or fatigue can decrease self-efficacy
• Being able to control stress may enhance self-efficacy eg. Relaxation techniques during exams
Self-efficacy is a strong predictor of future performance & accomplishment. Self-fullfilling prophecy - 64michel & shoda- cog. affective personality systemorganized system of five variables that interact continuously with one another & the environment to generate distinct patterns of behavior that characterize that person.;
1. Encodings & personal constructs
2. Expectancies and beleifs (behavior outcome expectancies; if-then)
3. Goals & Values
4. Affects (emotions)
5. Competencies & Self-regulatory processes eg. Self-reinforcement processes - 65behavioural signaturesconsistent ways of responding in particular classes of situations
- 66evaluation of social cognitive theoriesStrong scientific base
Brings together cognitive & behavioural approaches
More research still needed - 67culture effects on personality-complexity – much more potential for diversity in western cultures
-interdependence- Markus & Kitayama 1991- western= individual choice
-individualistic v collectivist- do you refer to personal attribute or to social identity - 68genderorganized mental structures that contain our understanding of the attributes and behaviors that are appropriate and expected for males and females.
Eg. Men in western culutres are strength, self efficient etc whereas women are kind. helpful - 69assessment of personality
- 70interviewsStructured Interviews: contain a set of specific questions that are administered to every participant
Also look at general appearance, voice & speech patterns, facial expressions & posture, etc.
Limitations:
– Characteristics of the interviewer may influence how the interviewee responds
– Depends on the interviewees desire to cooperate, to respond honesty & to report accurately - 71behavioural assessmentPsychologists devise an explicit coding system that contains the behavioral categories of interest eg. Strange situation Mary Ainsworth
• Observers are then trained until they show high inter-judge reliability
• Requires precision in defining behaviours & the conditions under which they occur - 72remote behaviour samplingResearchers & clinicians can collect self-reported samples of behaviour from respondents as they live their daily lives
A device pages respondents at randomly determined times during the day
Respondents then rate or record the selected behaviour - 73personality scalesObjective measures: include standard sets of questions that are scored using an agreed-on scoring key
Advantages:
• Can collect data from many people at the same time
• All people respond to the same items
• Ease of scoring
Disadvantages:
• Some individuals will not respond honestly - 74rational-theoretical approachitems are based on the theorist’s conception of the personality trait to be measured, e.g. the NEO-PI
- 75projective testsPresent ambiguous stimuli & ask the person for their interpretation
Since the meaning of the stimulus is unclear, the person’s interpretation must come from within
Projects inner needs, feelings, & ways of viewing the worlds onto the stimulus - 76rorschach test• Series of 10 inkblots
• Interpretations are based on what the responses seem to symbolise
• Ambiguity in interpreting results. Exner 1991 developed scoring system with specific coding category and scoring criteria to find insight into the subconcious - 77Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)• Person is instructed to write a story about what is happening in the picture, what has led up to the situation, what is being thought/felt and what will happen?
• 10-20 pictures; analysed for recurrent themes
• Not as valid/reliable as objective tests but valid at showing achievement motivation
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- Karteikarten am personality, erstellt von nicola Goodship am 07/05/2015.
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- nicola Goodship
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