Psych Chapter 7 Summary

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How People Think

Thinking (cognition) is a mental activity that occurs in the brain when information is being organized, stored, communicated, or processed.

7.1 Explain how mental images are involved in the process of thinking

Mental images represent objects or events and have a picture-like quality.

7.2 Describe how concepts and prototypes influence our thinking

Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of events, objects, or activities.

Prototypes are examples of a concept that more closely match the defining characteristics of that concept.

7.3 Identify some methods that people use to solve problems and make decisions

Problem-solving consists of thinking and behaving in certain ways to reach a goal.

Mechanical solutions include trial-and-error learning and rote solutions.

Algorithms are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.

A heuristic or "rule of thumb" is a strategy that narrows down the possible solutions for a problem.

Insight is the sudden perception of a solution to a problem.

7.4 Identify 3 common barriers to successful problem solving

Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as having only the use for which they were originally intended and, therefore, failing to see them as possible tools for solving other problems.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms one's beliefs, ignoring any evidence to the contrary.

7.5 Recall some characteristics of creative, divergent thinking.

Divergent thinking involves coming up with as many different answers as possible. This is a kind of creativity (combining ideas or behaviors in new ways).

Creative people are usually good at mental imagery and have knowledge on a wide range of topics, are unafraid to be different, value their independence, and are often unconventional in their work but not in other areas.

Intelligence

7.6 Compare and Contrast different theories on the nature of intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think rationally or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges or problems.

Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the ability to reason and solve problems, whereas specific intelligence, or s factor, includes task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art.

Gardner proposed nine different types of intelligence, ranging from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence.

Sternberg proposed 3 types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Intelligence includes general intelligence or g, 16 broad abilities, and many narrow abilities within each broad area.

Specific brain areas and brain functions have been tied to differences in intellectual ability, with some research indicating the frontal and parietal areas playing the most important roles.

7.7 Compare and contrast some methods of measuring intelligence

The Standford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now involves comparing a person's score to a standardized norm.

The Wechsler Intelligence Test yields 4 index scores derived from both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of intelligence.

7.8 Identify ways to evaluate the quality of a test

Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in the construction of an intelligence

Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different levels of intelligence based on the deviation of score from a common mean,

IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased.

Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individuals with traumatic brain injury and other conditions in which brain function has been negatively impacted.

Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of athletes and many military personnel.

7.9 Define intellectual disability, giftedness, and emotional intelligence

Intellectual disability is a neuropsychological condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior across conceptual, social, and practical domains of life is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age. Symptoms must also first be present during the developmental period.

The four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These are determined by the adaptive functioning and level of supports the individual needs in their daily life.

Causes of intellectual disability include deprived environments as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.

Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the upper end of the normal curve (130 or higher)

Emotional intelligence involves being able to reach goals and engage in productive thinking through accurate awareness and effective management of our own emotions. It also involves our ability to understand what others feel.

Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part.

Terman's studies have been criticized for lack of objectivity because Terman became too involved in the lives of several of his participants, even to the point of intervening on their behalf.

7.10 Evaluate the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence

Language is a system for combing symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements can be created and communicated to others.

Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. Pragmatic refers to the practical aspects of language.

7.12 Explain how language develops

The stages of language development are cooing, babbling, one-word speech (holophrases), telegraphic speech, and whole sentences.

7.13 Evaluate whether or not language influences how people think

Sapir and Whorf originally proposed that language controls and helps the development of the thought processes and concepts, an idea that is known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis.

Other researchers have found evidence that concepts are universal and directly influence the development of language, including the development of language, called the cognitive universalism viewpoint.

7.14 Summarize the research on the ability of animals to communicate and use language

Studies with chimps, parrots, and dolphins have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas.

Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.

Applying Psych to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health

7.15 Identify some methods for improving your cognitive health

While specific mental exercises (such as those involving working memory) may have some limited benefit, physical exercise promoting aerobic fitness is extremely important for optimal cognitive functioning.