Attachment

Attachment

1. Theories/Explanations

   • learnig theory - this has two parts: Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning. Classical conditioning when a natural response to a stimuli becomes associated with something else. Operant conditioning this is where the caregiver tries to stop a behaviour through reinforcement
     • CC: UCS -> UCR UCS + NS -> UCR NS = CS CS -> CR
     • OC: the baby feels hunger which is a negative drive and cries, the caregiver wants to stop the crying and gives the baby food (negative reinforcement), the baby associates the caregiver with food and becomes attached to them
   • Bowlby's monotropic theory - this suggests that attchment is innate that is designed to improve the baby's chance of survival and the attachment needs to be formed within the critical period (up to 3 years old). Attachment is based on a monotropic relationship with one special person (usually the mother). This relationship forms an internal working model (pattern for how a relationships work). The continuity hypothesis claims that the internal working model based on this relationship should influence future relationships. Babies are programmed with social releasers which happen to attract the attention and care of an adult. Caregivers respond to social releasers through sensitive responsiveness.
   • Bowlby's maternal deprivation - this claims that disruption of attachment between the baby and caregiver in the critical period can cause serious and permanent damage to the emotional, social and intellectual development of a child. Bowlby said that deprivation of the mother could lead to affectionless psychopathy (lack of empathy with/for others). Different lengths of seperation can have different outcomes for the child. This theory can be supported by Bowlby's studyof juvenile thieves.

2. Studies/Experiments

   • Animal Studies
     • Lorenz (1935) split a clutch of goose eggs, half hatched under the mother while the other half was kept with Lorenz. To test imprinting he put the goslings together to see which 'mother' they would go to. He found that they split into 2 groups and returned either to Lorenz or to the mother. Lorenz concluded that geese imprint onthe first moving object they see during a 12-17 hour critical period after birth. This suggests that attachment is innate and feeding is not needed to form attachments
     • Harlow (1959) raised monkeys with two surrogate mothers, one was made of wire and the other was covered in cloth. The monkeys were observed to see which they would spend most time with. Harlow found that monkeys prefered the cloth mother for comfort (went to either one for food) and when older were unable to form social relationships with other monkeys. Harlow concluded that attachment is not based on food but rather based on comfort and security provided by the caregiver
   • Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) conducted a longitudinal study of 60 babies until they were 12 months and then again at 18 months. The researched observed the babies and interviewed mothers. They found that seperation anxiety was visible in infants between 6 and 8 months old, stranger anxiety started at 9 months and most infants developed multiple attachments at 18 months
   • Ainsworth's 'strange situation' (1978) in this experiment mothers and babies (9-18 months) took part in 8 scenarios: 1) mum and baby play, 2) mum sits and baby plays, 3) stranger enters and talks to mum, 4) mum leaves, baby plays, stranger offers comfort if needed, 5) mum returs offers comfort to baby and stranger leaves, 6) mum leaves, baby is alone, 7) stranger enters and offers comfort, 8) mum returns and offers comfort. Researchers watched and recorded behaviour of the baby. Most infants were happy when mum was present but showed stranger anxiety. Ainsworth concluded that there are 3 types of attachment: type A (insecure-avoidants) where infants ignore mum and treat the stranger in the same way, type B (secure) where babies are happy with mum and show stranger anxiety and type C (insecure-resistant) in which babies don't settle well even with mother present, they were distressed when she left and would not be comforted by her upon her return
     • Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of Ainsworth's research but in different cultures. They found that type B attachment was most common but there were differences across cultures:
   • Rutter Romanian orphans (1998) conducted a study with 165 Romanian orphans adopted into UK families (most adopted under 2, all adopted under the age of 4) and compared them to 52 British orphans adopted into UK families (all adopted before 6 months of age). He assessed the children's physical and cognitive progress at the outset and then every 4 years. He found that at the outset Romanian children were behind the British children on all measures. 4 years later Romanian children caught up physically and cognitively (especially when adopted before 6 months). Rutter concluded that privation of infants due to institutionalisation can be recovered if given high-quality care
     • privation is the situation in which an infant is unable to form an attachment with a caregiver, it is unethical to purposefully create a situation like this

3. Later relationships

   • children with secure attachments will have an internal working model that reflects that and will expect others to be friendly, they are more likely to be more open and trusting of others and have secure attachments with their own children.

4. Caregiver-infant interactions

   • reciprocity - the infant and caregiver are able to produce responses from each other
   • interactional synchrony - the infant and caregiver coordinate their actions to form a way of communicating
   • Edward Tronick - still face experiment

5. The role of the father

   • the father should act as a plamate, encouraging physical activity, they enourage toddlers to take risks and encourage problem solving
   • the role of the father is different because of gender stereotypes, they are less psychcologically equipped or because of biological reasons (females produce more oestrogen which promotes nurturing behaviour and sensitivity)

6. Stages of attachment

   • pre-attachment (birth to 3 months) - infants show little preference for others, after 6 weeks show a preference for people rather than objects/environment
   • indiscriminate attachment (3 months - 7/8 months) - babies can discriminate between people (familiar and unfamiliar faces) showing more social behaviours to familiar people
   • discriminate attachment (8 months +) - babies become attached to certain people and will show signs of separation anxiety
   • multiple attachments (9 months +) - babies can form strong bonds with others, attachment to mother is the strongest but less stranger anxiety

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