Mind map

Biodiversity

Ashley Choi English

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Biodiversity

species
- A group of individuals that can exchange genetic material through interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
- gene pool
  - Alleles that are present in all the individuals in a species.
- speciation
  - New species produced. The by-product of genetic divergence of separated populations. 
  - allopatric
    - Describes populations that are geographically separated from each other.
    - subspecies
      - Allopatric populations that have yet to evolve even partial reproductive isolation but which have acquired population-specific traits.
    - dispersal
      - The process in which some individuals colonize a distant place far from the main source population.
      - peripatric speciation
        A specific kind of allopatric speciation in which a few individuals from a mainland population disperse to a new location remote from the original population and evolve separately.
    - vicariance
      - The process in which a geographic barrier arises within a single population, separating it into two or more isolated populations that are isolated from each other.
  - adaptive radiation
    - A period of unusually rapid evolutionary diversification in which natural selection accelerates the rate of speciation within a group, with new species adapted for specific niches.
  - co-speciation
    - A process in which two groups of organisms speciate in response to each other and at the same time, producing matching phylogenies.
  - sympatric
    - Describes populations that are in the same geographic location.
  - instantaneous
    - Speciation that occurs in a single generation.
  - phylogenetic tree and hypotheses
    - A diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms.
    - node
      - In phylogenetic trees, the point where a branch splits, representing the common ancestor from which the descendant species diverged. In plants, the point on a shoot where one or more leaves are attached.
    - sister groups
      - Groups that are more closely related to each other than either of them is to any other group.
    - taxon/taxa
      - A named taxonomic group at any rank, such as a species, a genus, or a family.
      - monophyletic
        Describes groupings in which all members share a single common ancestor not shared with any other species or group of species.
      - paraphyletic
        Describes groupings that include some, but not all, the descendants of a common ancestor.
      - polyphyletic
        Describes groupings that do not include the last common ancestor of all members.
      - taxonomic classifications
        - genus - family - class - phylum - kingdom - domain
    - characters
      - In the discipline of systematics, an anatomical, physiological, or molecular feature of an organism that varies among taxa.
      - homologous/homology
        Describes characters that are similar in different species because of descent from a common ancestor.
      - analogous/analogy
        Describes similar characters that evolved independently in different groups as a result of similar selection pressures; the noun form is analogy.
      - synapomorphies
        A shared derived character; the basis of cladistic phylogenetic reconstruction.
        cladistics
        Phylogenetic reconstruction on the basis of shared evolutionary changes in characters, often called synapomorphies.
      - parsimony
        Choosing the simplest hypothesis to account for a given set of observations. In phylogenetic reconstruction, opting for the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary steps.
    - fossils
      - trace fossils
        A track or trail, such as a dinosaur track or the feeding trails of snails and trilobites, left by an animal as it moves about or burrows into sediments.
      - molecular fossils
        A track or trail, such as a dinosaur track or the feeding trails of snails and trilobites, left by an animal as it moves about or burrows into sediments.
      - geologic timescale
        The series of time divisions that mark Earth’s long history.
      - radiometric dating
        Dating ancient materials using the decay of radioisotopes as a yardstick, including the decay of radioactive 14C to nitrogen for time intervals up to a few tens of thousands of years, and the decay of radioactive uranium to lead for most of Earth history.
        half-life
        The time it takes for an amount of a substance to reach half its original value. Radioactive half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a given sample of a substance to decay.
- biological species concept
  - The concept that “species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.” 
  - hybridization
    - Interbreeding between two different varieties or species.This complicates the BSC. 
    - hybrid offspring
      - The offspring produced by a cross; sometimes applied specifically to interbreeding between two closely related species.
- morphospecies concept
  - The idea that members of the same species usually look like each other more than like other species.
- ecological species concept
  - The concept that there is a one-to-one correspondence between a species and its niche.
- phylogenetic species concept
  - The idea that members of a species all share a common ancestry and a common fate.
- reproductive isolation
  - pre-zygotic
    - Describes factors that prevent the fertilization of an egg.
    - behaviorally isolated
      - Describes individuals that only mate with other individuals on the basis of specific courtship rituals, songs, and other behaviors.
    - gametic isolation
      - Incompatibility between the gametes of different individuals (typically belonging to different species).
    - mechanical incompatability
      - Structural configuration of the genitalia that prevents mating with another individual (typically of another species).
    - temporal isolation
      - Pre-zygotic isolation between individuals that are reproductively active at different times.
    - geographic or ecological isolation
      - Geographic is the spatial segregation of individuals and ecological is the pre-zygotic isolation between individuals that specialize ecologically in different ways.
  - postygotic
    - Describes factors that cause the failure of the fertilized egg to develop into a fertile individual.
    - genetic incompatability
      - Genetic dissimilarity between two organisms, such as different numbers of chromosomes, that is sufficient to act as a post-zygotic isolating factor.
  - partially reproductively isolated
    - Describes populations that have not yet diverged into separate species but whose genetic differences are extensive enough for the hybrid offspring they produce to have reduced fertility or viability compared with offspring produced by crosses between individuals within each population.
- symbiosis
  - A close interaction that has evolved between species that live together, often interdependently.
  - endosymbiosis
    - A symbiosis in which one partner lives within the other.
ecosystems
- habitat
animals
plants
- human action/activity
  - loss of biodiversity
    - Human activity along with other factors are causing species to become extinct. Overfishing removes species of fish at a rate that the species cannot replenish. Deforestation takes away many species' habitats and also contributes to changes in climate.
    - endangerment
    - extinction
      - mass extinction
        A catastrophic drop in recorded diversity, which has occurred five times in the past 541 million years.
    - biological annihilation
  - overfishing
  - deforestation
  - climate change
  - pollution
DNA/genetics
organisms
- taxonomy
  - evolution
    - natural selection
      - Because resources are limited, organisms with traits that favor survival and reproduction will produce more offspring and traits will increase in frequency
      - adaptation
      - mutations
        neutral
        No harmful or beneficial effect on organism.
        advantageous
        Increases fitness of an organism.
        deleterious
        Decreases fitness of an organism.
        molecular clock
        The correlation between the time in which two species have been evolutionary separated and the amount of genetic divergence between them.
        genetic divergence
        Two or more populations of a species accumulate independent genetic changes or mutations over time.
        pseudogene
        Gene is no longer functional. A pseudogene's molecular clock goes at a very fast rate. 
      - positive
        Increases frequency of a favorable allele.
      - negative
        Decreases frequency of a deleterious allele.
      - balancing
        Maintains two or more alleles of a given gene in a population.
        heterozygote advantage
        Heterozygote's fitness is higher than homozygotes, ensuring both alleles remain in the population at intermediate frequencies.
      - stabilizing
        Selects against extremes and maintains status quo.
      - directional
        Shift of the mean value of a trait in a population over time.
      - disruptive
        In favor of extremes and intermediate forms, selecting against the mean.
      - sexual
        intrasexual
        Interactions between individuals of one sex. Members of one sex compete with one another for access to the other sex.
        intersexual
        Interaction between males and females. Females choose among males.
    - genotype frequency
    - allele frequency
      - Changes in allele frequencies in a population over a period of time results in evolution.
      - genetic drift
        A random change in allele frequency from generation to generation by chance.
        bottleneck
        Originally large populations are reduced to a few individuals. Genetic drift often results from bottlenecks.
        founder event
        A few individuals start a new population and relative to the parent population, allele frequencies are changed. 
        genetic variation
        Alleles have a great chance of being lost/decreased which decreases genetic variation of a population.
        migration
        Movement of individuals and alleles can lead to changes in allele frequencies and reduce genetic variation.  
        gene flow
        Movement of alleles from one population to another and results from migration.
    - Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
      - Evolution does not occur. In absence of evolutionary forces, allele and genotype frequencies do not change.
      - conditions: no mutation, no migration, no selection large population, random mating
    - Charle Darwin
      - Came up with the theory of natural selection along with Wallace.
    - Modern Synthesis
      - The combination of Darwin's theory of natural selection and Mendelian genetics forms the current theory of evolution. 
    - Mendel
      - Multiple genes per trait could account for patterns of continuous variation. 
    - coevolution
      - The process in which species evolve together, each responding to selective pressures from the other.
    - evo-devo
      - The short name for evolutionary developmental biology, a field of study that compares the genetic programs for growth and development in different species in order to understand how diversity has evolved within and between groups.
- photoheterotrophs
  - An organism that uses the energy from sunlight to make ATP and relies on organic molecules obtained from the environment as the source of carbon for growth and other vital functions.
- chemoautotrophs
  - A microorganism that obtains its carbon by the fixation of carbon dioxide, using energy derived from chemical reactions, not from sunlight.
- primary producers
  - An organism that takes up inorganic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other compounds from the environment and converts them into organic compounds; a source of food for heterotrophic organisms in the local environment.
- assimilation
  - The process by which organisms incorporate nutrients obtained from the environment into more complex molecules.
- archaea
  - hyperthermophiles
    - An organism that requires an environment with high temperature.
  - methanogens
    - Archaea that generate natural gas (methane, CH4) as a by-product of anaerobic energy metabolism.
- prokaryote
  - a microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles.
- eukaryote
  - are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear envelope.
  - protist
    - An organism with cells having a nucleus but lacking other features specific to plants, animals, or fungi.
    - algae
      - A photosynthetic protist.
    - protozoa
      - A heterotrophic protist.
  - Opisthokonta
    - A superkingdom that encompasses animals, fungi, and related protists.
  - choanoflagellates
    - The closest protistan relatives of animals; mostly unicellular protists characterized by a ring of microvilli around the cell’s single flagellum.
  - amoebozoa
    - A superkingdom of eukaryotes with amoeba-like cells that move and gather food by means of pseudopodia.
  - archaeplastida
    - A eukaryotic superkingdom of photosynthetic organisms; includes the land plants.
  - stramenopila
    - A eukaryotic superkingdom including unicellular organisms, giant kelps, algae, protozoa, free-living cells, and parasites; distinguished by a flagellum with two rows of stiff hairs and, usually, a second, smooth flagellum.
  - alveolata
    - A eukaryotic superkingdom, defined by the presence of cortical alveoli, small vesicles that, in some species, store calcium ions. Includes ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexans.
- multiceullular
  - bulk flow
    - The movement of fluids over long distances through organisms due to pressure differences.
  - gap junctions
    - A type of connection between the plasma membranes of adjacent animal cells that permits materials to pass directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of another.
  - plasmodesmata
    - Connections between the plasma membranes of adjacent plant cells that permit molecules to pass directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of another.
cells
- animal cells
  - blastula
    - A hollow ball of cells filled with fluid that develops from the morula and is an early stage during embryo development in animals.
  - gastrula
    - A stage of early embryo development in animals when cells of the hollow blastula migrate and reorganize to form a multilayered structure in which different cell types begin to differentiate.
- plant cells
  - respiration
    - aerobic
      - Utilizing oxygen
    - fermentation
      - A variety of metabolic pathways that produce ATP from the partial oxidation of organic molecules without oxidative phosphorylation or an electron acceptor, such as oxygen.
    - anaerobic
      - Does not utilize oxygen
      - anammox
        Anaerobic ammonia oxidation; energy metabolism found in some bacteria in which ammonium ions are oxidized by nitrite, yielding nitrogen gas as a by-product.
- bacteria
  - - prokaryotic cells - present almost everywhere on Earth
  - plasmid
    - In bacteria, a small circular molecule of DNA carrying a small number of genes that replicate independently of the DNA in the bacterium’s circular chromosome.
  - peptidoglycan
    - A complex polymer of sugars and amino acids that makes up the cell wall in bacteria.
  - DNA/genes
    - horizontal gene transfer
      - The transfer of genetic material between organisms that are not parent and offspring.
      - transduction
        Horizontal gene transfer by means of viruses.
    - conjugation
      - The direct cell-to-cell transfer of DNA, usually in the form of a plasmid.
    - transformation
      - The conversion of cells from one state to another, as from nonvirulent to virulent, when DNA released to the environment by cell breakdown is taken up by recipient cells. In recombinant DNA technology, the introduction of recombinant DNA into a recipient cell.
  - photosynthesis
    - oxygenic
      - Producing oxygen
    - anoxygenic
      - Not producing oxygen; anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria do not use water as an electron donor and so do not generate oxygen gas.
    - cyanobacteria
      - A monophyletic group of bacteria capable of oxygenic photosynthesis.
  - bactriochlorophyll
    - A light-harvesting pigment found in photosynthetic bacteria; closely related to the chlorophyll found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
  - nitrogen fixation
    - The process by which some Bacteria and Archaea convert nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3), a form biologically useful to primary producers.
  - denitrification
    - The process in which some bacteria use nitrate as an electron acceptor in respiration, releasing N2 to the environment.
  - proteobacteria
    - The most diverse bacterial group, defined largely by similarities in rRNA gene sequences; it includes many of the organisms that populate the expanded carbon cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.
  - gram-positive bacteria
    - Bacteria that retain, in their thick peptidoglycan walls, the diagnostic dye developed by Hans Christian Gram. (Bacteria with thin walls, which do not retain the dye, are said to be gram negative.)
- mitosis
  - a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
- meiosis
  - a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females. 
  - haploid
    - Describes a cell with one complete set of chromosomes.
  - diploid
    - Describes a cell with two complete sets of chromosomes.
    - zygote
      - The diploid cell formed by the fusion of two gametes.