Russia 1917-91: From Lenin to Yeltsin Government

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Communist Government in the USSR, 1917-85

Context/ Introduction to Russia

Bolshevik Party- established in 1903

Target- repressive Tsarist regime ruling Russia- leader= Tsar Nicholas II

Aims- Get rid of upper and middle classes who exploited workers and peasants under capitalism developed w/ Industrial revolution

'Workers of the world unite, you have nothing to lose but your chains' Marx

March 17- Fall of Tsarist regime- provisional gov set up

Party= vanguard of Revolution- armed seizure of power in coup d'etat

Dictatorship of the proletariat- government ruled on behalf of working class promoting socialism by gov control of economy and interests of workers

1917-Bolsheviks relatively small group- claimed to represent interests of proletariat but didn't have enough support to lead popular revolution

Opposition inc.: Socialist revolutionaries and Mensheviks= left with groups, Tsarist supporters, Nationalist groups

Opposition to the Bolshevik Party in 1918

Right-wing and liberals- feared Bolsheviks would remove their business & deny them political freedoms- Marxism challenge to rich and privileged in Russia

Nationalists- Ukrainians, Poles, Finns- collapse of regime chance to assert independence

Dealing with fellow left wing groups-

SRs & Mensheviks assumed share of gov

Lenin rejected calls for socialist coalition

Constituent Assembly, Jan 18- democratically elected- SRs successful as mobilised support among peasantry

Bolsheviks = 175 seats 9 mil votes

SRs = 410 votes 21 mil votes

Lenin dissolves Assembly- condemns as instrument of bourgeoisie

Used All-Russian Congress of Soviets as instrument of support

NO REAL FORUM FOR OPPOSITION

Destruction of other political parties

Removal of vote from bourgeoisie class (employers and priests)- stripped opposition of possible reservoir of support

Mensheviks & SRs-difficult to publish news due to restrictions b=placed by Bolsheviks

Mar 19- Bolshevik renamed Communist Party= by 1921 all other parties effectively banned

January-March 1921-5000 Mensheviks arrested

Arrests of Mensheviks & SRs in 1921&22- ceased to exist as organised parties

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918

Took Russia out of First World War

Lost control of Baltic States of Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, Finland

National humiliation for conservatives esp. military officers serving in Tsar's army

Restore pride- overthrow Bolsheviks

Whites

Those opposed to Bolsheviks during civil war of 1918-20

Promised foreign help from Allies keen for Russia to stay in war

Allies willing to supply arms, money & troops to those ensuring Russia rejoin war

Why did Lenin sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

Key factor in bringing the collapse of the Tsarist regime and Prov government was pressure of war

War sapped energy & resources of government

Little chance of military success- waste of resources, time and men for Lenin

Only was to consolidate power of Bolshevik Party &deal w/ internal enemies was to pull out of war- focus on Russia only

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The Russian civil war, 1918-21

Reds-

Bolsheviks and supporters

Bolshevik forces= Red Army

Support mainly industrial workers and peasants- saw Bolsheviks as best alternative than landowners and factory owners

Whites-

Inc. ppl who wanted a return of Tsar

Liberals & supporters of Prov Gov

Military leaders dissatisfied with Russia pulling out of war

National minorities seeking independence from Russia

SR & Menshevik members denied involvement in gov

All also received aid from Allies in first world war

Overview of civil war-

Bolsheviks attacked by forces of General Krasnov at Pulkovo Heights near Petrograd straight after Oct. Rev

Series of military campaigns against Bolsheviks mounted after Treaty of BL signed

End of 1920- Bolsheviks defeated Whites and secured communist rule

Civil war timeline-

Area directly under Bolshevik control limited to Moscow to Petrograd in NW

Reds successfulk due to organisation in military, economic & political terms

Whites amalgam of several grps- limited co-op worsened by long front Whites had control over

Corruption & inefficieny meant failure of putting aid from Allies to good effect

End of 1920-White strongholds defeated

Trotsky's military strategy coherent - became Commissar for War early 1918- made Red Army efficient

Army formed from Red Guard units + pro-Bolsheviks parts of old Tsarist armed forces

Conscription rose to 5 mil by end of war

Bolsheviks able to extend gov direction over economy to ensure resources organised&deployed effectively thru War communism

Adequate supplies for Red Army thru nationalisation of industry

Food supplies requisitioned from peasants- unpopular w/ peasantry nut provided food

Civil war caused adoption of highly authoritarian & centrally controlled system

Worker supported Bolsheviks to degree as best guarantors of gains from Revolution

Peasantry despised Bolsheviks- Land Decree of 1917 guaranteed distribution of land in favour

Results of the Civil War-

Bolshevik state highly centralised due to demands of civil war

War fighting required quick decision making and direction of resources from gov

Power in hands of gov & party leadership based in Moscow

Extensive use of terror against opponent

Foretold development of party after civil war

Experience of civil war reinforced militaristic values in population

Fighters in war didn't buckle under pressure & accustomed to use of terror

Tenth Party Congress, 1921-

Attention of Party on divisions withinBolshevik Party

Party membership- 300000-1917 --> 730000-1921

Ban on formation of factions within Party put forward by Lenin

Attempt to impose view of leadership on Party

Expulsion from Party if rule not followed

1921- Bolsheviks faced Kronstadt Mutiny- revolt by sailors previously loyal to Bolsheviks & peasant uprising = Tambov Rising

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Nature of government under Lenin

Apparatus of government

Proletarian representative organisations brought under Bolshevik control & sidelined

Inc. Soviets, trade unions & factory committees

Trade unions-organisation representing workers interests based on trade (e.g. railway workers)

Factory committees-small group that represented workers within particular factory - contained workers of different trades in same workplace

System headed by Sovnarkom devised based on representative bodies from All Russian Congress of Soviets

Sovnarkom- Council of People's Commissars- made up of 20 members responsible for making key decisions and giving gov orders-- members elected by Central Executive Committee- make quick decisions & met on daily basis in civil war

Central Executive Committee- large group elected by Congress of Soviets- oversaw work of gov and administration

All-Russian Congress of Soviets- supreme law making body of state- had to approve laws issued by Sovnarkom- theory: representative body made from members elected by local soviets

Also inc provincial & city soviets made from representatives from local soviets - conducted admin of gov at local level

During Civil War- Bolsheviks used control over Sovnarkom to issue orders rubber- stamped by Congress of Soviets & enforced on country

Party control over the state

Early 1920s- power shift from ^ apparatus of state to party

Party apparatus:

POLITBURO- 7-9 leading members of Bolshevik Party chosen by Party's Central Committee- made key decisions affecting policy- replaced Central Committee-met daily under Lenin- mas importante que Sovnarkom = Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Leon Trotsky, Josef Stalin

CENTRAL COMMITTEE- 30-40 members chosen by Party Congress- aft 1919 power increasingly delegated to Politburo

PARTY CONGRESS- body made of representatives of local branches - discussed general programme of party- ban on factions under ruling on part unity stifled debate- met yearly 1917-26

LOCAL PARTY BRANCHES- each headed by party secretary - secretaries potentially powerful e.g Zinoviev Moscow & Kamenev Petrograd

Party structure controlled decision making shown by infrequency of meetings by state bodies

1919- decision made to make secret police directly responsible to Politburo than Sovnarkom

Democratic Centralism

Gov claimed by Bolsheviks to be based on principle:

Soviets represented workers at local level

Concerns taken through structure of organisations to decision making bodies at higher levels of gov

Decisions made in interests of ppl & implemented at regional and local level

Reality:

Soviets undermined when Bolsheviks took power

System of ruling by decree= not involved in decision making

Soviets existed- dominated by Bolsheviks- no longer responsive to concerns of workers

Local soviets part of local gov- only carried out orders given by centre

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Growing centralisation of power

Power centralised to Politburo

Personal power of Lenin

Was Chair of Sovnarkom and Politburo member

Preferred collective leadership w/ discussion before decision

Many Bolsheviks saw Lenin as inspiration- expected strong leadership

Heated debates stopped by threat of resignation by Lenin from party position- e.g signing Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918 & adoption of NEP 1921

1922 --> Lenin's power of influence limited by several strokes & health deterioration

Colleagues tried to gain positions- prepared for struglle of succession

Power centralised in Party structure that personal authority

Growth of party bureaucracy & nomenklatura system

Rapid growth of vast party bureaucracy (civil service who administer policies)

Many joined party to improve career as al other political forces absent

Nomenklatura system developed to develop committed communist bureaucracy

= system of appointing people to jobs from list approved by Party leadership- encouraged corruption as favours expected from those promoted

Effective tool of centralisation administered y General Secretary

1924-membership of Communist Party at 1 mil

Soviet Constitution of 1924

1922-extended control of Party over outlying regions of old Russian Empire

Sent in Red Army forces & encouraged local Bolsheviks to organise mass demos and street violence

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) established in 1924- name reinforced idea it was federal system

Theoretically federal state- reality tightened authority of Communist party in Moscow

Party bodies of republics under control of central Party structure

Russians had upper-hand compared to other nationalities- made up 90% of land & 72% of population

75% of Communist Party Russian

Use of terror

Implemented by Cheka - headed by Felix Dzerzhinsky

Party Committee

Formed in Dec 1917

Purpose: Deal with counter-revolution, sabotage & speculation

Operated outside law

Dealt with enemies inside Party

Played key role in establishing central control over Party apparatus

Carried out executions of suspects without trial

Aug 1918- Left wing opponents arrested after assassination attempt on Lenin

1921-2- Red Terror- further arrests

1917-23- Cheka responsible for executions of ⁓200000 ppl

1922- After Civil War- Cheka replaced b OGPU ( All-Union State Political Administration

Activities brought under supervision of state

Terror became discreet& bureaucratic

Same leader as Cheka

1922--> Terror exercised within Party- large no.s of Party purged

Chitiska (cleansing- purge of Party)-1918

1920s- another purge of Party

1/3 party purged under Lenin

Expanding party- purges needed to ensure discipline & order- adventurers, drunkards &hooligans targeted in Party

Terror continuing after civil war shows lack of confidence by Lenin n hold of power- near end of life, Lenin developed obsession over terror, especially execution of priests

Degree of centralisation

Gov chaotic- local mafia of Bolsheviks & black marketeers used this to defy orders from Moscow

Debate within Party not completely stifled:

1917-Kamenev & Zinoviev opposed Lenin's decision to launch revolution

1918- Fierce debate in Party on accepting Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1921- Introduction of NEP led to formation of left & right wing factions in Party

1920-21- role of trade unions much debate-- Worker's Opposition group favoured greater role of trade unions- Lenin crushed group-others emerged

1922-Joseph Stalin appointed General Secretary - observe potential opposition

Conclusion

1924- Communist Party dealt with opposition outside & in structure

Party expanded w/o sacrificing unity or conformity of members

Growth in power & size of party product of civil war- terror & dictatorship necessary to ensure survival

1917 seizing of power showed importance of idea of party as vanguard of revolution

Bolsheviks claimed seizing means of production, use of violence & terror, establishing authoritarian regime all done in interests of proletariat

State became vast bureaucracy running country for own benefit

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Elimination of opponents in government & Party

Introduction

​​​​​​Jan 1924- Lenin died- collective leadership formed from members of Politburo

1924-8- constantly changing rivalries within group

1928-Stalin emerged as real power within CP - gained position through powers as General Secretary

Stalin used common trends as Lenin to establish and maintain his personal dictatorship

Elimination of opponents within the government & party

1922- Stalin became General Secretary- aw the opportunities of gaining info and influence via position

Saw that Lenin made main focus of power the Party rather than state- Party structure grew in power & size- Gen Sec head of Party structure

General Secretary- head of Party secretariat- responsible for daily running of Party:

Coordinated work across all party departments- has access to vast info

Gained access to 26000+ personal files on Party members- could use against rivals

Head of secret police reported to him regularly- few Politburo members not under surveillance

Responsible for deciding agenda for Party meetings- could restrict issues debated

Lenin Enrolment 1923-5= aim to increase no. industrial workers in Party ranks- 500000+ members recruited

Members recruited politically naive & uneducated

Stalin careful to ensure he could identify w/ demands and needs of new members- humble background helped

Meant had support of new members who seek privileges of Party membership

Had right to appoint ppl to Party positions - could appoint his supporters to key positions

Those opposing Stalin roved from Politburo & replaced

Kirov made head of Party in Leningrad 1926 to replace unfavourable Zinoviev

Party congress dominated by loyal supporters of Stalin

'Comrade Card-Index', 'grey blur'- Nicknames of Stalin to emphasise willingness to do routine tasks - meant he could build up power unnoticed

Stalin's opponents in the Politburo

Leon Trotsky- considered blatant successor, arrogant, didn't organise himself & supporters as viewed argument in Party beneath him

Gregory Zinoviev- worked closely w/ Lenin, strong support in Leningrad, skilled orator, vain

Lev Kamanev Lack of principles, Party Secretary in Moscow

Nikolai Bukharin- young, intelligent, lacked political experience

Mikhail Tomsky- leading figure in train union movement, influence declined due to restrictions in trade unions

Alexei Rykov- Succeeded Lenin as Chair of Sovnarkom, major drinking problem

Stalin's removal of political rivals & securing of power

Left- Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev, campaigned for Permanent revolution- encouraged proletarian revolution throughout world- favoured ending of NEP

1926- views criticised at Fifteenth Party Conference

Accused of forming factions- expelled from Politburo & demoted

Expelled from Party

1928- Zinoviev & Kamenev readmitted into Party after renunciation of previous views

Trotsky- preferred to stick to principles- exiled to Central Asia-1929- expelled from USSR

Right- Bukharin, Tomsky, Rykov- preferred NEP in short-term

1927-8-Party leadership divided over issue of industrialisation - Stalin aiming to launch First Five-Year Plan

1928-Emergence of Right Opposition group against First Five-Year Plan

For continuation of NEP- feared decline of food production due to backlash of peasantry

These views opposed Stalin's ideology of 'Socialism in One Country'

Stalin issued directive to Party members 'The foundations of Leninism'- presented argument for removal of NEP- easy to read for politically naive industrial workers of Party

Undermining of Bukharin's position by highlighting disagreements he had with Lenin in 1920's

Bukharin accused of Trotskyism due to criticism of growth of bureaucracy

Bukharin arranged secret meeting w/ Zinoviev & Kamenev-

accusation of factions plausible

Accusation of faction forming carried death penalty

Supporters of Right in Moscow Party branch& trade unions removed

Stalin highlighted failure of NEP to prevent food shortages in cities- undermined Bukharin

Approved emergency grain requisitioning- NEP failure

April 1929- Right Opposition in Politburo identified & removed from posts

Stalin felt this adequate to neutralise opposition to policies &position

Stalin represented growing class of Party bureaucrats wishing to maintain privileges of their positions

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1930's Purges

Increased Stalin's hold over Party

Used the apparatus of terror established by Lenin to dispose of 'enemies'

Instruments of terror

Use of terror central feature of Stalin's rule. Key instruments of terror:

Party Secretariat- collected info on Party members- could be used to condemn them as enemies of ppl

Secret police-

carried out surveillance, arrests & executions

Ran Gulags-labour camps for victims of purges

1934- NKVD evolving from Cheka

Increasingly bureaucratic

Purges of party members- hand in party membership then expelled from Party----Lenin

Chistka of 1932-35

1932-New purge of Party membership- response to difficulties during 1st FYP & collectivisation

Local Party officials ignored orders for implementation of policies

Chistka meant to remove officials for rapid implementation of economic policy

1935- 22% of Party removed from posts-non-violent, showed mounting opposition to Stalin's policies

Was opposition real?

Victims of purges-

LW= Kamenev, Zinoviev

RW= Bukharin, Tomsky, Rykov

Local Party level- Quotas set by Stalin demanding certain percentage of each Party branch purged

Accusations-

Working with Trotsky

Spying for capiltalist powers

Plotting to assassinate Stalin

Reflect Stalin's paranoia- 'I trust nobody, not even myself' Stalin

Increasing criticism of Stalin's policies-1932-

1932- Ryutin, former Party secretary

Issued document to Central Committee criticizing Stalin

Accused him of personal dictatorship- called for abdication

Criticism of brutality of enforcement of collectivisation

Peasant resistance- unrest- particularly Ukraine & Caucasus

Party officials criticised unrealistic targets in 5YP-could't be achieved

Seventeenth Party Congress 1934

Intended to celebrate successes of 1st 5YP

Kirov presented criticisms so pace of change slowed- received immense support

Murder of Kirov 1934-

1st December 1934- assassinated by Leonid Nikolayev

Party member who felt Party didn't appreciate talents & rumours of affair of his wife with Kirov

Suggested that murder carried out on Stalin's orders

Kirov's assassin as member of opposition group led by Zinoviev & Kamenev= official explanation

Kamenev & Zinoviev arrested- trialled Jan 1935 & sentenced to long terms of imprisonment

murder catalyst for purging of large sections of Communist Party

Show trials-

1935-6 - arrests & denunciations of members of Left Opposition

Series of show trials ( public trials of leading enemies of the state- often filmed for propaganda use)

Former leading figures of party accused of anti-Soviet activities

Trial of the Sixteen- leaders of the Left, Zinoviev & Kamenev, Aug 1936

Accused of working as agents of Trotsky to undermine state

Under immense pres. from NKVD- confessed to 'crimes'

implicated leaders of right within conspiracy

Trial of the Seventeen- 1937-

Purge of party officials- Karl Radek

Accused of working w/ Trotsky & foreign gov to undermine soviet economy thru wrecking & sabotage

Real crime- probs criticising Five-Year Plans

Trial of the Twenty-One-1938

Purge of the Right- Tomsky committed suicide before trial

Bukharin & Rykov accused of forming Trotskyite-Rightist Bloc'

Both confessed- Bukharin's article 'Notes of an Economist' made clear criticisms of Stalin's economic policies

Threat to Stalin

Trials staged to ensure other Party members intimidated by power of State

Relayed to Soviet population via radio & film footage

Confessions produced under torture- after guilty verdict death penalty carried out

Previous show trials- Shakhty trial 1928- managers & technical experts accused of holding back industrialisation

Emphasised no toleration to lack of commitment

Purges widen-

Purges of the Red Army-137-8

3 out of 5 marshals purged

14 out of 16 army commanders & 35000 officers shot/imprisoned

Armed forces critical of demoralising impact of collectivisation on peasantry who made up bulk of soldiers

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Agricultural reform Brezhnev onward; 1964-

1965-new leadership abolished Regional Economic Councils- placed more power into centre of planning apparatus

Gosplan given greater powers of coordination- showed power lay with conservatives like Brezhnev

Brezhnev ruled Russia for 20 years

The Kosygin Reforms

1965- Alexei Kosgin PM-

launched series of reforms aimed to unleash creativity in decision-making process+ improve productivity

Reforms gave incentives to enterprise managers to use their resources efficiently

Attempted to centralise planning- focus on cost & profit instead of Stalinist idea of quantity indicative of economic success

Little achieved - reforms implemented by officials who showed hostility towards reforms

Central planners disliked reforms making them accountable for policies they hadn't much control over

Brezhnev sympathised with conservatives- sabotaged reforms

Reforms watered down --> ineffective

Bonuses for output high than bonuses for innovation- managers preferred tradit. methods

Focus on bonuses for profit- enterprises made fewer, expensive items than mass cheap produce (needed most)

1968- Kosgin's power reduced- role in foreign affairs

Reforms under Brezhnev

Military industrial complex