Understanding Psychology: Chapter 1-3 Notes

Page 1

Chapter 1: Intro to Psychology

MODULE 1-1 (1) - Intro to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology

Word Bank

Clinical = mental health disorder

Psychology = scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Subfields of Psychology

Behavioral

Behavioral Genetics

Studies inheritance of traits related to behavior

Behavioral Neuroscience

Examines biological basis of behavior

Clinical

Clinical Psychology

Deal with study , diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

Clinical Neuroscience/Neuropsychology

Unities the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders

Cognitive

Focuses on the study of higher mental processes

Counseling

Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.

Cross-cultural

Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups

Developmental

Examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death

Educational

Concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as relationship between motivation and school performance

Environmental

Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment

Evolutionary

Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

Experimental processes of sesing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

Forensic

Focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories

Health

Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

Industrial/Organizational

Concerned with psychology of workplace

Personality

Focuses on consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another

Program Evaluation

Focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as Head Start preschool program, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals

Psychology of Women

Focuses on issues in discrimination against women and causes of violence against women

School

Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or behavioral problems

Social

Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others

Sport

Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise

Biological Foundations of Behavior

People are biological organisms

Behavioral neuroscience

Subfield of psychology

Focuses on how the brain, nervous system and other biological aspects of the body determine behavior

How do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think About the World?

Experimental Process

Studies the process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

Subspecialty

Cognitive Psychology - Focuses on higher mental process, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving

Breakdown of Where US Psychologists Work

Professional Services

Professional Services

Teaching

Research

Management/Supervision

Other Work Activities

Accounting/Finance/Contracts

Employee Relations

Sales

Psychologists: A Portrait

Historically, women actively discouraged from becoming psychologists

Women now outnumber men in the field

Consequences of racial & ethic minority underrepresentation among psychologists:

Field is diminished by lack of diverse perspectives and talents

Deters new members from entering the field

Minorities possibly underserved: people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethic group

Education/Careers for a Psychologist

Education

PhD - Doctor of Philosophy

PsyD - Doctor of Psychology

Master’s Degree

Bachelor’s Degree

Careers

Administrator

Serving as a counselor

Providing direct care

Education

Business

Government

Page 2

Chapter 2: Psychological Research

MODULE 2-1 (4) - Scientific Method

Scientific Method:

Approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest

Scientific Method Process

Identify questions of interest stemming from

Behavior and phenomenon requiring explanation

Prior research finding

Curiosity, creativity, insight

Formulate an explanation

Specify a theory

Develop a hypothesis

Carry out research

Devise an operational definition of the hypothesis

Start research method

Collect data

Analyze data

Theory

Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest

Provide framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles

Example diffusion of responsibility

With more bystanders in an emergency situation the smaller share of each person feels

Developed by Bibb Latane and John Darley

Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions

Hypothesis: Prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested

Operational Definition: Translation of hypothesis into specific testable procedures that can be measured and observed

Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons

Permits them to places bits of observations with a coherent framework

Help psychologists to make deductions about unexplained phenomena

Develop ideas for future investigation

MODULE 2-2 (5) - Conducting Psychological Research

What research methods do psychologists use?

How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies

Introduction to MODULE 5

Research

Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge

Key to understanding the accuracy of hypotheses and theories

Descriptive Research

Systematic investigation of a person, group, or pattern of behavior

Several types of descriptive research

Archival Examples

Existing data are examined to test a hypothesis:

Census docs

College record

Online databases

Newspapers clippings

Advantage - inexpensive

Disadvantage - problems with using existing data

Data may not be in form that allows researcher to test hypothesis fully

Naturalistic Observation

Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior

Does not make change in situation

Advantage - Sample of what people do in their natural habitat

Disadvantage - Inability to control any factors of interest

Survey Research

Asked a series of questions about their behavior, attitude, and thoughts

Advantage: can infer how a larger group would reponds if a representative is surveyed

Disadvantage - results would be inaccurate if sample is not representative

Survey respondents may not want to admit to holding social undesirable attitudes

Case Study

In-depth, immense investigation of people of an individual or small group of people

Often include psychological testing

Advantage - can use insights to improve our understanding of people in general

Disadvantage - unique individuals make it impossible for generalizations

Correlational Research

Research in which relationship between 2 sets of variables is examined to determine:

Whether they are associated or correlated

Variables: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change , or vary, in some way

Correlation coefficient - Represent the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables

Value can range from +1 to -1

Positive - As the variable of one increases, so will the value of the other variable

Negative - As the variable of one increases, value of the other variable decreases

Lack of relationship - value near 0 indicates no correlation

Disadvantage - inability to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships

Experimental Research

Experiment: Investigation between 2 or more variable by product

Experimental Groups/Control groups

Treatment

Manipulation implemented by experimenter

Experimental group

Any group participating in experiment that receives treatment

Control Group

Independent variable: variable manipulated by experimenter

Dependent variable: variable that is measured

Expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable

Dependent on the actions of the research participants that are taking part in the experiment

Random Assignment to condition : Participants assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance

Significant Outcome: statistically meaningful results

Makes it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses

Replicated Research: research that is repeated in other settings, etc.

MODULE 2-3 (6) Critical Research Issues

Ethics of Research

Guidelines that protects participants

Protection of participants

Right of participants to privacy regarding their bahe=avior

Participations research is completely voluntary

Informing Participants about natures of Procedures before participation in experiment

All experiments must be reviews by independent panel before being conducted

Informed consent: document signed by participants

Debriefing: full explanation after

Should Animals Be Used In Research?

Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain

Procedures that subjected to animal to distress are permitted:

When alternate procedure is unavailable

When research is justified by its prospective values

Provides greater experimental control over nonhumans

Procedures that might not be possible with people can be carried out.

Threats to Experimental Validity: Diversity in Research Subjects

Most research uses Intro Psych Students

WEIRD - Western Education, Rich Democreatic Culture

Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias

Experimental Bias - factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable

Experimenter expectations

Participation expectations

Placebo - False treatment without any significant chemical properties

Double-blind procedure - Keeping experimenter and participant blind to the nature of the drug administered

END OF CHAPTER 2

Page 3

Chapter 3 - Neuroscience & Behavior

MODULE 3-1 (7) - Neurons

Structure of Neurons

Neurons: Nerve Cells

Consist of cell body that contains nucleus

Distinctive Feature of neurons

Dendrite - cluster of fibers at end of neuron that receives messages from other neurons

Axon - part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons.

Terminal Buttons - sends messages

How Neurons Fire

Neurons follow an all-or-none law - rule that neurons are either on or off

Resting state - negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron

Before a neuron is triggered

Action potential - electric nerve

Speed of Transmission

Speed in which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by

Axon’s Size

Thickness of myelin sheath

Neurons differ in terms of

Quickness of impulse moving along axon

Potential firing rate

Intensity of stimulus determines fire rate

Mirror Neurons

Specialized Neurons that fire, when a person:

enacts a particular behavior

Discovery of mirror neurons suggest that humans’ capacity to mitate other may be a inbor behavior

Helps in explaining how and why humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions

Possible basis for:

empathy feeling

development of language in humans

Where Neurons Meet: Bridging The Gap

Synapse: Space between 2 neurons when axon of sending neuron communicates dendrites of receiving neuron by using chemical messages

Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite ( an sometimes the cell body) of receiving neuron

Not every neuron is capable of receiving chemical message carried by particular neurotransmitter

Successful chemical communication is possible only when neuro

Types of chemical messages delivered by neurotransmitters:

Excitatory message

If neurotransmitters remained at the side of the synapse, it would lead to:

Receiving nero's awash, in a continual chemical bath

Producing constant simulation of or coinhibilition of receiving neurons

Effective communications would no longer be possible

Reuptake: reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal buttons

Understanding of reuptake has lead to development of certain

drugs that treat psychological disorders

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

Reduces the symptoms of depression.

MODULE 3-2 (8): Nervous System and Endocrine System

Central/Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System: parts of the nervous system that includes brain and spinal cord

Spinal Cords: Bundle of neurons that leave the brain an runs down the length of the back

Reflex: Automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus

Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes:

Sensory Neurons (afferent)

Motor Neurons (efferent)

Peripheral Nervous Systems: made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from spinal cord and brain and reaching extremities of body

Includes

Somatic Division

Autonomic Division

Activating Divisions of Autonomic Nervous Systems

Autonomic Nervous system consists of

Sympathetic Division

Parasympathetic Division

Evolutionary Foundations of Nervous System

Evolutionary Psychology - identifies behavior patterns

Behavioral genetics - study of effects of heredity on behavior

Endocrine System: Chemicals/Glands

Endocrine system - chemical communication network that sends messages

Hormones - circulates through the blood

Pituitary gland - major component of endocrine system aka “master gland”

Secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of endocrine system

MODULE 3-3 (9) - Brain

How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain?

What are the major parts of the brain, and what behavior is each part responsible?

How do the 2 halves of the brain operate independently?

How can an understanding of the nervous system help us find ways to alleviate disease and pain?

Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of skull

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Provides detailed, 3D computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Shows biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment

Requires radioactive tracer injection

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity by exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field

Central Core: “Old Brain”

Controls basic functions such as eating sleeping and is common to all vertebrates

Hindbrain contains:

Medulla: Controls critical body functions, such as breathing and heartbeat

Pons: Bridge in Hindbrain

Acts as transmitter of motor information

Involved in regulating sleep

Cerebellum: Part of the brain that controls bodily balance

Reticular Formation: Extends from medulla through the pons, passing through midbrain and forebrain

Produces arousal of body

Thalamus: Part of brain located in middle of central core that acts primarily to rely information about the senses

Hypothalamus: Tiny part of brain, located below the thalamus

Maintains homeostasis

Produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of species

Eating, self-protection, sex

Limbic System: Beyond Central Core

Limbic System: Part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction

Includes amygdala and hippocampus

Plays important role in emotion, learning, and memory, along with hippocampus

Sometimes referred as “animal brain” due to similarities in structures and functions to those of other mammals

Cerebral Cortex: “New Brain”

Responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain

Lobes: 4 major sections of cerebral cortex

Frontal

Parietal

Temporal

Occipital

Sulci: deep grooves in cortex that physically divides 4 sets of lobes

Motor Area of Cortex

Motor area: Responsible for body’s voluntary movement

Well mapped: researchers have identified amount and relative location of cortical tissue used for movement in specifics parts of body

Sensory Area of Cortex

Sensory area: Site in the brian of the tissue that corresponds to each sense with the degree of sensitivity related to amount of tissue

Example: somatosensory area: in parietal lobe; specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in particular location of body

Auditory area in temporal lobe

Visual Area in occipital lobe

Association Areas of Cortex

Association Areas: Site of higher mental processes

Thought, language, memory, speech

Example Phineas Gage, railroad worker accident

Damage to association area

Aphasia: result from injuries to association areas of the brain, and create problems with language

Broca’s aphasia

Wenicke’s aphasia

Neuroplasticity and Brain

Neuroplasticity

Changes in the brain related to the addition of new neurons that occur throughout the lifespan

New interconnections between neurons

Reorganizations of info-porcessions areas

Neurogenesis - Creation of new neurons in certain areas of the brain during adulthood

Specialization of Hemispheres: 2 Brains or 1?

Brain is divided into 2 roughly mirror-image halves

Hemispheres: Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location

Lateralization: Dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions

Language

Split Brain: Exploring 2 Hemispheres

Split-brain patients

Corpus callosum surgically cut

Last resort treatment for severe epilepsy

END OF CHAPTER 3