Psychology Units 1-2

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Chapter One: Research Methods

Does caffeine increase stress levels?

Independent Variable -> Drinking caffeine vs Drinking no caffeine

Dependent Variable -> Stress levels

Operationalised Independent Variable -> Drinking 4 cups of coffee per day vs drinking no cups of coffee per day

Operationalised Dependent Variable -> Stress levels measured by a heart monitor

Extraneous Variables -> Previous history of heart problems

-> Asthma problems

Confounding Variable -> Age

Sampling Methods:

Convenience Sampling-> Participants that are selected because they are readily available.

Random Sampling -> When everyone in the population has an equal chance at getting selected. E.g. Picking names out of a hat.

Stratified Sampling -> Dividing the population in to particular strata that is relevent to the study. Randomly select people from a strata in the proportions they are represented in. Most REPRESENTATIVE sample of the population.

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CHAPTER 2: The Role of the Brain in Mental Processes and Behaviour

Central Nervous System

- Brain ->> Receives sensory information from the PNS, Integrates and processes the sensory info and coordinates a motor response/command.

- Spinal Cord ->> Receives sensory info and transmits it to the brain for processing. Sends motor info from the brain to the Peripheral nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

- All the nerves outside the Central Nervous System

- Somatic Nervous System (SNS) -> Voluntary movements. E.g. Raising your hand

- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) -> Involuntary Bodily Functions and Movement. E.g. Breathing, Digestion and Heart Rate

Example:

Pick up a very cold glass of water

Sensory receptors in hands detect the temperature

Sensory neutrons send this info to the spinal cord

Connects with an interneuron

Travels up the ascending tract to the brain for integrating and processing

The brain coordinates a motor response of putting the glass down

It sends a motor neuron down the descending tract out to the muscles the arm to put the glass down

Fight or Flight Response:

Self regulating

Viseral Tissue, organs and glands

Involuntary

Sympathetic Nervous System: Encountering Danger

- Dilated Pupils, Reduced Salivation, Increased Respiratory Rate, Increased heart-rate, digestion is inhibited, bladder relaxes, genitals unstimulate

Parasympathetic Nervous System: Keeping Us Calm

- Pupils constrict, increased salivation, reduced respiratory, reduced/normal heart rate, digestion recommences, bladder contracts, genitals stimulate

The Structure/Role of Neurons:

Soma: Initiates the Action Potential

Myelin Sheath: Protects and insulates the axon, enables faster electrical transmission and prevents interference from nearby neurons.

Axon Terminals: Stores Neurotransmitters and release them into the synapse

Pre-Synaptic Neurons: Sending the message

Post-Synaptic Neuron: Receiving the message

Dendrites: Receive incoming information from the pre-synaptic neuron and directs it towards the Soma (cell body).

Glial Cells:

CNS Glial Cells:

Astrocytes -> Provides nutritional Support for neurons and performs Phagocytosis (digesting parts of dead neurons) to maintain a healthy and stable environment for that neuron.

Microglia -> Carries out a majority of Phagocytosis in the CNS to maintain a healthy environment for the neuron, supports the immune system by fighting infection and responding to injury.

Oligodendroglia -> Produces the myelin sheath to insulate and protect the neurons axon. Can myelinate multiple neurons at the same time.

PNS Glial Cells:

Schwann Cells -> Produces the myelin sheath to insulate and protect the neuron's axon. It myelinates a single axon and assists damaged nerves to repair and regenerate

Satellite Cells ->Maintains and protects the neuron by covering its cell body in many peripheral ganglia, supplies nutrients to the cell body and assists skeletal muscles to repair and regenerate.

From Classical Philosophy to Modern Science:

Ancient Philosophers debated whether the brain or the heart was the most important organ

The heart was regarded as most important by Aristotle.

Aristotle believed the mind and body interacted through the heart. He also thought intelligence and movement came from the heart

Plato proposed that the mind and soul were separate

Descartes Dualism: Descartes suggested that the mind and body interact and influence each other.

He also regarded the Pineal Gland as the principal seat of the soul and the place in which all our thoughts are formed.

Phrenology:

- Feeling bumps on the skull to predict human behaviour

- There was no scientific merit to it, however it is harmless

- It became pseudoscience (fake science)

From Case Studies to Brain Experiments:

- Flourens: Brain intervention

Surgically removing parts of the brain to see what each part is responsible for.

Brain Scans:

CT Scan: Patient is given an iodine-based substance making things clearer

MRI Scan: Gives more detail than a CT scan and can create 3D images of the brain.

PET Scan: Patients are infected with a harmless dose of radioactive glucose, tracks areas of the brain that absorbs more glucose, can see colluder images, but cannot detect damage or abnormality.

Functional MRI Scan: Detects the differences between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, but standard MRI procedure is followed.

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CHAPTER 3: AREAS OF THE BRAIN

Hindbrain:

Cerebellum- The 'little brain.' Helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance. Receives info from the spinal cord to regulate posture, muscle tone and muscular coordination.

Medulla- Enables neurons to travel through to the mid brain and forebrain. Regulates all the organs vital of life. E.g. Involuntary actions such as breathing, heart rate and digestion. Communicate with the ANS and directs various bodily systems to change according to the needs of the body.

Midbrain:

Reticular Formation (brain's arousal centre)- Helps us selectively focus our attention and alertness and controls our physiological arousal. Sorts information into important and unimportant. Considered to be involved in sleeping and waking.

Forebrain:

Thalamus- Consists of two small egg-shaped structures joined together. Relay system for sensory messages on their way to the cerebral cortex. Analyses info then directs it to the appropriate sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus- Found below the thalamus. Regulates body temperature, sleep-wake cycle, sex drive, thirst and hunger. Connects the nervous system with the endocrine system.

Cerebrum- Largest and highly developed part of the brain. Responsible for higher cognitive abilities, voluntary movements , emotion, and personality. Divided into the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere.

Left and Right Cerebral Hemispheres:

LEFT HEMISPHERE: Verbal and Analytical Functions:

Cognitive Functions:

- Language

-Speaking

- Reading and Writing

- Mathematics

- Analysing Sequential Info

Motor Functions:

- Controls movement on right side of the body, production of speech.

Sensory Functions:

-Receives info from the right side of the body.

Perceptual Functions:

- Comprehension of Language

RIGHT HEMISPHERE: Non-Verbal Functions

Cognitive Functions:

- Musical Ability

- Design, Movement, Dance, Emotions, Reading Maps, Completing Puzzles

-Art and Sport

Motor and Sensory Functions:

-Controls movement on left side of body

- Receives sensations from the left side of the body

Perceptual Functions:

- Recognition of Faces

- Recognition of Patterns

PARTS OF THE BRAIN: LOBES, SENSORY AND MOTOR CORTEX AREAS AND LANGUAGE CENTRES

Functions:

Frontal Lobe: Associated with complex mental abilities and the control of voluntary movement.

Prefrontal Cortex: Covers the front part of the frontal lobe; implicates planning, complex cognitive behaviour, personality expression, decision making and moderating social behaviour.

Primary Motor Cortex: An area at the rear of the frontal lobe that directs the body's skeletal muscles and controls voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobe: Associated with processing of sensations but also involved in the coordination of senses and movement.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Registers and processes sensory info from receptors in the body.

Temporal lobe: Associated with processing auditory info; also involved in memory, facial recognition, object identification and emotion.

Primary Auditory Cortex: Registers and processes auditory information.

Occipital Lobe: An area located at the back of each cerebral hemisphere; associated with processing visual information.

Primary Visual Cortex: At the base of the occipital lobe; registers and interprets visual info sent from each eye.

Broca's Area: In the left frontal lobe; controls muscles responsible for the production of articulate speech.

Wernikes Area: In the left temporal lobe; responsible for the comprehension of language and the formulation of meaningful sentences.

Amygdala: Located in the front section of the temporal lobe; detects fear and prepares for emergency events. It controls the way we react to certain stimuli, or an event that causes emotion, that we see as potentially dangerous.

Corpus Callosum: Connects the two cerebral hemispheres together to enable communication between them.

CHAPTER 4: BRAIN PLASTICITY AND DAMAGE:

- Infancy and adolescence are periods of rapid physical and psychological development.

-There are changes in brain functions and structure.

- The brain continually refines itself to meet the demands of the environment.

Myelination:

-Myelin is a white substance that coats the axon of a neuron to enable faster neural transmission.

Infancy: Birth - 2 years

- Myelination occurs during fetal development

It occurs in a particular order:

-Before birth, myelination occurs in the brain stem and cerebellum.

-Auditory areas, followed by visual pathways are myelinated by 6 months.

- Primary sensory and motor areas are myelinated before association areas.

- As more neurons become myelinated, the infants behaviour becomes more varied and complex.

Infancy: Creating and Strengthening Synapses:

- The infants brain excess neurons during the first three years of life

- The brain us more 'plastic' during infancy. They are able to learn more efficiently due to the amount of neurons available.

- Infants are exposed to a wide range of sensory information. If this exposure is repeated, then synapses between the neurons will form and strengthen.

Synaptic Pruning:

- Sensory exposure that isn't repeated, will result in weak synapses.

- Neurons and synapses that are not used will go through a process called synaptic apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)

- Synaptic pruning is the process that occurs when weak and unused synaptic neurons connected are eliminated to enhance a neural transmission of those that are strengthened.

Frontal Lobe Development:

- The frontal lobe is one of the last area to be myelinated.

- Myelination begins at 8-12 months of age and is not complete till adulthood (up to 27 in males).

- Myelination in the frontal lobes enables higher cognitive functions to be processed.

Adolescence 12-18 yrs: Myelination:

Myelination of neurons continues at rapid rate (more than childhood)

Multiple brain areas are able to be integrated, allowing for more complex cognitive functions compared to childhood

This doesn't end until adulthood so adolescence are not capable of the same thinking processes as an adult.

Synapse Strengthening:

A period of time where individuals are exposed to new experiences.

New synapses are form due to new exposure.

Synapses are strengthened in response to repeated exposure to particular experiences

It allows for greater integration between brain areas leading to more complex function being performed.

Selective Specialisation:

The temporal and parietal lobes experience a synaptic growth spurt between the ages of 7 -11

Synaptic pruning occurs reducing the number of synapses by 40%, this is due to selective specialisation.

What you spend most of your time doing will determine which synapses will be strengthened.

E.G. If you spend 5 hrs on your phone or watching TV, then those synaptic connections won't be pruned.

Frontal Lobe Development:

Adolescents show more maturity than children due to the development of their cognitive functions.

However, because it's not fully developed till adulthood they don't have the capacity of as much complex, abstract and logical thought as an adult.

Adolescence are often in a mental dance between childhood and adulthood.

Injury and the Cerebral Cortex:

When the cerebral cortex is damaged, the amount of dysfunction sustained depends on the area that was damaged.

An injury to the brain is referred to as an Acquired Brain Injury (ABI).

Frontal Lobe Damage:

Cognitive Impairment:

- Concentration, planning, problem solving, logical thinking,, forming new memories, accessing old memories, making decisions and analysing.

Behavioural Impairment:

- Changes in the way a person experiences, detects and expresses

- Changes in the ability to plan and execute voluntary movement.

- Changes in the production of speech

Occipital Lobe Damage:

- Loss of vision, lack of recognition of visual material, problems paying attention to visual info, problems making sense of visual information, issues with judgement of distances.

Temporal Lobe Damage:

- Difficulty hearing, difficulty comprehending speech, short/long term memory loss, problems recognising faces, lack of emotional control

Parietal Lobe Damage:

- Loss of sensations, difficulty recognising tastes, difficulty feeling pain, loss of spatial awareness

Dysfunction also depends on which side of the brain was affected.

Left hemisphere: Struggles with verbal and analytical functions (maths, science, understanding languages, etc) and voluntary movement on the right side of the body.

Right Hemisphere: Struggles with non-verbal functions (map reading, recognition of patterns and faces and expressing emotion) and voluntary movement on left side of the body.

Adaptive Plasticity:

-Changes in brain neurons and synaptic connections to best suit a person's environmental condition

- Occurs in response to learning or being exposed to something new in the environment

-Occurs throughout our entire livest is greatest during childhood.

- It allows the brain to adapt to changing environmental circumstances or to loss of function following a brain injury.

Developmental Plasticity:

- Changes in neurons and synaptic connections that occur as a specific consequence of development processes.

- Occurs during specific periods of development as a result of normal maturation.

- Also occurs throughout our lifespan but is greatest during infancy and childhood.

- Provides the potential to develop new behaviours following environmental interactions and learning experiences.

Parkinson's Disease:

Symptoms:

Trembling hands, arms, legs, face and jaw

Bradykinesia (slowness loss of movement)

Problems with posture and balance

Low self esteem and self hate

Anxiety and depression

Uncoordinated movement

Muscle stiffness and fatigue

Issues smelling

Causes:

No known cause but it begins with a loss of dopamine-producing cells in the brain (basal ganglia).

Usually occurs in mid or later life

Substantia Nigra (may deteriorate causing decreased dopamine) : Produces Dopamine

Dopamine: Neurotransmitter responsible for smooth coordinated movement.

Neuroimaging: Provide insights into the mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease.

MRI Imaging: (structural)

Can detect early-stage Parkinson's disease with 85% accuracy

FMRI:

Can assess activity of the basal ganglia

PET Scan:

3D Imaging of the brain structures (Substantia Nigra, Corpus Striatum, Basal Ganglia) to assess changes in their activity and function.

Responsible for the diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease.

PET imaging of the dopamine producing areas of the brain.

Can ientify areas that produce dopamine, and therefore affect movement.

Tracks changes in cognitive structures.

Injecting a patient with 18F-DOPA, which is similar to dopamine. When the drug is absorbed into the patient's body, changes in their brain's dopamine-producing structures can be examined.

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CHAPTER 5: The Complexity of Psychological Development

Factors influencing Psychological Development:

- Development continues throughout one's lifespan

- The psychological development of an individual involves complex interactions between biological, psychological and social factors.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Genetics

Hormones

Bodily functions that influence behaviour.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Thought processes such as our self-concept and how we take in and use information

SOCIAL FACTORS:

Interactions with others

Communication

All these factors influence development and they all operate in an interrelated manner, influencing the contribution of the other factors.

Nature vs Nurture Debate:

Both terms are used to describe two major forces in the development of humans.

- Nature refers to the inborn, inherited factors gained genetically from biological parents. For example, eye colour, height, etc

- Nurture refers to the environmental or external conditions at affect an individual's development. E.g. The care we are given in terms of food, education, love and support.

- Genotype refers to the set of genes inherited from biological parents

- Phenotype refers to the observable properties of the body and behavioural traits.

Two biological twins may have the same genotypes, however, their phenotypes may differ. For example, one of the twins may prefer high fatty foods and exercises irregularly, whereas the other twin may eat healthy foods and constantly exercise.

Hormones:

Hormones are chemical substances secreted into the bloodstream from many glands as a way for the body to adapt to different conditions. They have a role of keeping the body at a state of homeostasis as well as initiating, mediating and regulating the process of development , maturation, reproduction, and ageing. An example of a hormonal disorder is Hypothyroidism.

Maturation: Biological growth processes that begin at conception and lead to the maturity of the organism. Changes occur throughout the body and nervous system automatically in an orderly sequence about the same time for most members of species. Because these changes are innate, they are not entirely influenced by environmental experiences. For example, generally begin to sit without support , then crawl, and then stand before they start walking. This indicates that a child is maturing and developing.

The age at which the ability develops can be reasonably predicted and this enables psychologists to establish developmental norms (A period of time in which the majority of people develop certain skills or abilities.)

Timing of Experience on Psychological Development:

The timing or stage of development can be important for typical development to occur. Psychologists have classified periods of development as either occurring in a critical period or sensitive period.

A sensitive period of development is the ideal time in which to learn a specific behaviour. In simple words, it is a period of time during development when an organism is mature enough to demonstrate a behaviour, and it is the best time to be exposed to a particular environmental stimuli. E.g. Reading and Writing

Critical periods of development are times of increased sensitivity to environmental influences when the conditions are optimal for certain capacities to emerge in an organism. It involves a small window of opportunity to learn a behaviour. If this window closes learning becomes impossible or nearly impossible. E.g. If a pregnant woman contracts the measles, particularly early in pregnancy, the child may be born with heart defects, cataracts or hearing loss. But if the disease was caught later on in the pregnancy, it would not cause damage to the baby. In this case, the critical period relates to not having exposure to stimulus.

DIFFERENCES:

SENSITIVE PERIOD:

- These sensitive periods usually start and end gradually, and span a longer period of time in comparison to critical periods.

- An organism may still acquire the knowledge however it would take more effort and time

CRITICAL PERIOD:

- Occur within a short span of time

- Developmental will not occur later

- Alters the course of development

Emotional Attachment in Psychological Development:

Attachment is referred to as close emotional bond shared between a mother and child or a caregiver and child.

Imprinting:

Konrad Lorenz was curious to see why baby geese follow their mothers. He observed the specialised learning ability of young animals to fix their attention on the first object with which it has experience, and to follow that object thereafter. Precocial bird species, such as chickens, ducks and geese are all able to walk once hatched so they attach themselves to the first moving object they see. This this known as imprinting.

In attachment, there is a critical period during which this must occur for optimal development. Mothers usually begin to cultivate a parent-child bond within hours of giving birth. A direct sign that an emotional bond has formed appears at approximately 8 to 12 months of age. At that time, infants may display separation anxiety when left or alone or with a stranger.

Harlow and his Monkeys:

Harry Harlow conducted a number of experiments to investigate the factors influencing the development of attachment (emotional bonds) of infant rhesus monkeys to their mothers. He studied the role of feeding in infant-mother attachment. To do this, he used 8 infant rhesus monkeys that had been separated from their mother at birth. The monkeys were kept in cages contain a wired surrogated and a clothed surrogate. A feeding bottle was attached to both in the same area where a breast would be on a real mother. The findings of the experiment were that regardless of which surrogate provided the nourishment, the cloth surrogate was preferred to the wire surrogate. None of the monkeys would spend more than one or two hours in any 24- hour period on the wired surrogate.

To examine what would happen if the monkeys were scared or stressed, a mechanical spider was introduced. They terrified monkeys sought comfort in from the cloth surrogate, regardless of whether it had the feed bottle. From these result, Harlow concluded that contact-comfort was more important that feeding in the formation of an infants attachment its mother. He also suggested that contact-comfort was important in human infant-parent attachment.

Mary Ainsworth:

She created a laboratory experiment that is known as The Strange Situation. It took place in a room and then a fixed sequence of events occurred with the infants reactions being recorded and observed.

The events that occurred in The Strange Situation was:

> The infant enters with mother

> The infant plays with mother present

> The stranger enters

> The mother leaves infant alone with stranger

> The mother returns

She was then able to categorised the infant behaviours into three groups:

Securely Attachment: Group B

- Protested vigorously when mother left room

- Look for her during her absence

- Responds with pleasure and gives her a lively greeting when she returns

> Mothers of group B infants tend to be more sensitive, accepting and expressive of affection towards them.

Anxiously Attachment: Group A

- Showed great distress when their mothers left the room

- Weren't calmed easily upon her return.

- Appeared to be anxious

> Mothers of group A infants are insensitive to their signals, they do not often close body contact with their infant and, instead of being affectionate, they are often irritable and behave in an angry manner.

Avoidant Attachment: Group C

- Rarely cried when mother leaves room

- Showed little attention to her when she returned

> Mothers of Group C infants are insensitive and awkward with their infants and are not affectionate, but not as rejecting as group A mothers.

The Importance of Attachment on Emotional Development:

Alan Sroufe found a connection between attachment in early life and development in later years. Infants who were type B early infancy were less frustrated and happier at two years in comparison to type A and C. Other studies show that securely attached infants were more socially competent and had better academic results in grade 3. If an infant is deprived of attachment, they will grow up to be socially awkward, unsure on how to deal with situations and they will find difficulty trusting themselves, people around them and the world.

Cognitive Development: Piaget's Theory

Symbolic Thinking: Using symbols, gestures, or images to mentally represent people, objects events that may not be present

Concrete Thinking: Thought processes that rely on experiences in the real world.

Piaget is famous for his theory on the ways in which children develop their cognitive abilities.

Mental Adaptation:

Assimilation: The application of existing mental patterns to new situations. E.g Referring to a car as a truck.

Accommodation: The modification of existing mental patterns to fit new demands. E.g Referring to the truck as a truck and not a car.

Piaget's Four Stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

- A child's intellectual development is mostly non verbal

- Mainly concerned with learning to coordinate purposeful movements with information from the senses by looking at, touching and mouthing objects in their immediate environment.

- Object permanence also occurs in this stage. It is when infants understand that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight (approximately 18 months).

- By the age of two, they can anticipate the movement an object behind a screen. For example, when watching an electric train, a child looks ahead to the end of the tunnel instead of staring at the train.

- Once a child has gained object permanence, peekaboo ceases to be funny.

The Pre operational Stage (2-7 years):

- Children begin to think symbolically and use language.

- Child's thinking is very intuitive

- Children may have a tendency to confuse words with the objects they represent.

- Child is quite egocentric and believe that everyone sees the world from their point of view.

- Piaget suggested that they are quite egocentric because of their limited understanding of mental states such as desires, belief, thought, intention and feeling.

The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

-Mastery of conservation, which is the concept that mass, weight and volume remain unchanged when the shape of the objects change. e.g. they realise that santa's sack could not hold millions of presents for everyone.

- They also understand that rolling a ball of clay into a different shape such as a snake, does not change the amount of clay used.

- Children also begin to use concepts of time, space and number. For example, they would count the number of sleeps before a significant event.

-Reversibility of thought also occurs, this is when they know that relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed, so if they know that 1+2=3, then they know that 2+1=3

The Formal Operations Stage (11 years +):

- Thinking is based on abstract principles (thinking in terms of concepts that cannot be necessarily seen.)

- Can think about their thoughts

- Become less egocentric

- Able to consider hypothetical possibilities

-Older adolescence are capable of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning

- The ability to learn advanced maths, physics, chemistry etc.

Psychosocial Development: Erik Erikson's Eight Stage Theory:

-Erikson suggested that we face a psychosocial dilemma at each stage of our lives.

Trust vs Mistrust: Stage One

- Trust is established when babies are given love, warmth and care. If they are treated with love, they will grow to trust people, themselves and the world around them.

- Mistrust is caused by inadequate predictable care parents who are cold indifferent or rejecting.

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Stage Two (1-3 years)

- Child learns to feed themselves and do things on their own

- They could cause 'accidents' such as spilling and falling and start feeling ashamed and they may start to doubt their abilities and questions the child's willpower.

Initiative vs Guilt: Stage Three (3-5 years)

- Using initiative in planning or carrying out plans

- Or develop a sense of guilt over misbehaving regarding parents' limits.

- Questions one's purpose and role in life.

Industry vs Inferiority: Stage Four (6-12 years)

- learn to follow and accept rules imposed by schools or home

- The child can start believing e inferior to others

- Questions competency

Identity vs Role Confusion: Stage Five (Adolescence)

-Acquire a sense of identity

-Can become confused about one's role in life

- Questions who you are and if you are happy

Intimacy vs Isolation: Stage Six (Young adulthood)

-Develop a relationship and a joint identity with a partner

- Or can become isolated and stay away from meaningful relationships

- Question if a person is ready for new relationships, or if there is a fear of rejection

Generativity vs Stagnation: Stage Seven (Middle Adulthood)

- Making use of time and having concern with helping others and guiding the next generation

- Can become self-centred and stagnant

- Question what the person will do with their spare time.

Integrity vs Despair: Stage Eight (Late adulthood)

- Understand and accept the meaning of a temporary life

- May complain about regrets, not having enough time and not finding a meaning throughout life

- Questions ones overview of their entire life.

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CHAPTER SIX: ATYPICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Typical and Atypical Behaviour:

Typical Behaviour- Behaviour that represents what most people do. e.g. sleeping at night, wearing formal clothes to a formal event, stressing over a big event, being able to read and write.

Atypical Behaviour- Behaviour that does not represent what most people do. e.g. Not greeting people when you see them, laughing at serious events, leaving the house with no shoes, not talking, etc.

Adaptive and Maladaptive Behaviour:

Adaptive Behaviour - Behaviour that allows you to meet and adapt to the standards of everyday living. e.g. Studying, waking up in the morning, eating healthy etc

Maladaptive Behaviour - Behaviour that doesn't allow you to meet and adapt to the standards of everyday living. e.g. social media, video gaming consoles, procrastination etc.

CONCEPTS OF NORMALITY:

The Statistical Approach:

Defines normality on based on the statistical majority.

E.g. if a student obtains a really high or really low IQ test score compared to others, they would be considered abnormal based on the statistical aproach.

The Medical Approach:

Defines normality as an individual being physically healthy and defines abnormality as having a physical illness.

E.g. Someone with colourblindness would not be considered normal, nor would someone with a common cold.

The Functional Approach:

Defines normality on the ability to interact and involve oneself in society

E.g. Staying in bed all day, not washing, or not being able to keep a job is not considered normal according to the functional approach.

The Sociocultural Approach:

Defines normality by determining whether behaviour is typical according to cultural beliefs and traditions.

E.g. Talking loudly, kissing and hugging in public, polygamy

The Situational Approach:

Defines normality based on the social situation, behavioural setting, or general circumstances in which the behaviour occurs.

E.g A plane crashed carrying 45 people, 16 survived and they survived on human bodies for 75 days in the deep snow. The south Americans didn't consider this abnormal, although they usually would.

The Historical Approach:

Defines normally by the period of time in which the judgement was made.

E.g. Homosexuality was considered normal in ancient Greece and it wasn't normal for people to work and be educated back then.

Health:

Health- A state of complete physical, social and psychological wellbeing and not merely in the absence of disease or infirmity .

Mental Health- The psychological state of someone who is functioning at a satisfactory state of emotional and behavioural adjustment.

Mental Illness- The psychological state of someone who has emotional and behaviour problems that are severe enough to require psychiatric intervention.

Mental health problem- A disruption to a person's usual level of social and emotional well-being that doesn't last a long time and isn't very severe. It is often triggered by stress.

A continuum model shows the different levels of a particular concept or how a concept can change overtime.

Bio-psychosocial Approach to Physical and Mental Health:

Health is influenced by factors that are classified as protective factors and risk factors. Protective Factors enhances on the health of an individual and Risk Factors impede on the health of an individual.

Stress:

Stress is referred to a state of physical or mental tension that occurs when an individual must adjust or adapt to their environment, but they feel that they don't have the capacity to do so. A stressor is the object or the event that causes stress, such as an exam, the death of a loved one, etc. However stress can also be positive, this can be referred to as Eustress. Which means that stress is changed into something an individual finds motivating or challenging. But Distress is a negative response to a stressor that impedes the ability to perform at an optimal level.

Internal Factors: Assisting individuals to cope with change and challenge:

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

-Physical exercise, exerting oneself to keep fit

Exercise alters the hormones, circulation, muscle tone and a number of other aspects of physical functioning. Together, such changes can lower risks of diseases and it can increase the levels of serotonin the the brain, the neurotransmitter that is reduced when a person experiences depression. People who are physically healthy, will cope better with external challenges.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:

- Optimism

- Personal Control

- A sense of meaning

External factors: Coping with challenges:

Social Support:

The close, positive relationships we develop with others. This support facilitates good health and morale. the presence of s secure network of friends and family is a major protective factor against mental illness. Support from family and friends serves as a buffer to cushion the impact of stressful events. The interaction between psychological, social and biological factors can affect and individual's ability to cope.

Classifying Mental Disorders:

To help provide guidelines and a standard for classification of mental illness, categorical approaches have been developed. Mental disorders can be grouped according to severity and symptoms. One example of the categorical approach is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

It provides a common language for therapists, researches, social agencies and health workers. This manual also helps diagnose specific mental disorders and select appropriate therapies. The major categories of psychological disorder, include addiction disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders and personality disorders.

Anxiety Disorders:

Feelings of dread, apprehension or uneasiness in response to unclear or ambiguous threat. It is normal to feel anxious however, and anxiety disorder differs from this completely. Anxiety disorders cause reoccurring, unrealistic and constant fear, avoidance behaviour and pervasive feelings of unhappiness, inferiority, insecurity and stress. It also impairs one's ability to complete daily tasks.

Mood Disorders:

- Very common and quite severe

- Involve major disturbances in emotion such as depression or mania.

- Made up of depressive disorders and bipolar disorders

Depressive disorder: Major Depression

Depression is normal following tragic events such as a death of a loved one, disappointment, a loss. However, Major Depression lasts a lot longer and has many more impairments on one's daily life. It is marked by lasting and extreme low emotions. Symptoms include: feeling of hopelessness and worthlessness, loss of appetite, insomnia, withdrawal from social relationships, difficulties concentrating and lack of energy and motivation. Suicide is also something people with major depression may do, as a 'cry for help,' but usually they intend on succeeding.

Schizophrenia Spectrum:

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder in which an individual feels as if they have been disconnected from reality. It is accompanied by disorganised thoughts (switching topics when speaking), hallucinations (visual and auditory) , negative symptoms (reduced emotional expression and fewer facial emotions) and both persecutory and grandiose delusions.

Labelling and Stigma:

Labelling occurs when a certain characteristic of an individual is used as a name or brand to describe them. E.g. Tall, short, thin, psycho, nuts, crazy, schizo. The reason physical illness and mental illness are treated so differently is because mental illness has social stigma attached to it. Stigma refers to social disapproval of an individual's personal characteristics or beliefs. Stigma often arises because people are often uncomfortable or embarrassed by behaviour that is different and the mentally ill are often seen as violent, unpredictable and scary. People who have been labelled as mentally ill, struggle finding jobs, tend to be denied housing and are more likely to be falsely accused of crime.

Social Stigma can be dealt with by improving mental health literacy (knowledge and awareness about mental health) and constant reinforcement of negative stigma by the media.

The Two-Hit Hypothesis:

A model used to explain the causes of multiple disorders such as Schizophrenia and Cancer. The two-hit hypothesis proposes that suffering from psychological disorders ch as schizophrenia have had some genetic or prenatal environmental factor disrupt early brain development.

The two-hit hypothesis refers to the genetic vulnerability (first hit) that is triggered by something in the environment (second hit). Both 'hits' are required for symptoms of a disorder to become apparent, as each of the 'hits' themselves would not be enough to cause a mental disorder.

Possible causes of Schizophrenia:

Some factors that are believed to contribute to onset of schizophrenia include:

- Environment

- Genetic and Physiological factors

- Pregnancy and birth complications