Flashcards
PSYCHOLOGY
Cards in this deck (200)
- 1PIAGET BELIEVED THAT THOUGHT..DEVELOPS IN A SEQUENCE OF STAGES
- 2THE STAGES ARE..1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH-2)
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7)
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11)
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE(12 & UP) - 3CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE1. Logical thinking develops
2. Most short-comings have been overcome
3. Abstract thinking is absent (Abstract thinkers are able to reflect on events and ideas) - 4WHY DOES EGOCENTRISM WANE IN THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGEBECAUSE THEY HAVE MORE LIFE
EXPERIENCE WITH FRIENDS & SIBLINGS & REALIZE THERE ARE DIFFERENT VIEWS - 5WHAT ARE MENTAL OPERATIONS IN THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIODThey are able to solve problems by using the knowledge they have acquired up until that age and rationalize the issue. Example: Sally now realizes that the idea of Santa Claus is impossible and therefore stops believing in him.
- 6FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING (ADOLESCENCE)1. Highest level of cognitive development
2. Adolescents/adults think abstractly (Abstract thinkers are able to reflect on events and ideas)
3.Speculate on hypothetical situations
4. Use deductive reasoning
5. Reflective abstraction: consider the content of their thoughts and reflect on them - 7FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING (ADOLESCENCE): WHAT IS DEDUCTIVE REASONINGDrawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal-operational thought (also involved in scientific thinking)
- 8What is Reflective abstraction:Consider the content of their thoughts and reflect on them/create new ideas, knowledge and insights through the rearrangement of existing knowledge
- 9What is Interpropositional reasoningThey can determine the logical truth or falsity of pairs of statements by looking at the logical relation between the two for example is useful in game situations trying to come up with a solution or strategy to win.
- 10—
- 11WHAT IS WORKING MEMORYWhere a relatively small
number of thoughts and ideas can be stored briefly - 12WHAT IS THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY FOR LEARNING AND REMEMBERING1. Proposes that human cognition consists of mental hardware (cognitive
structures like where info is stored) and software (organised sets of cognitive
processes) – just as computers
2. Does not view development as a sequence of stages - 13What is Long term memoryIs a permanent storehouse of knowledge that has unlimited capacity
- 14THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY: WHAT ARE MEMORY STRATEGIESAs children grow, they learn other memory strategies:
1. Organisation – strategy in which information to be remembered is
structured so that related information is placed together
2. Elaboration – strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable - 15THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY: WHAT IS METACOGNITIONAwareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
- 16What is MetamemoryRefers to the processes and structures whereby people are able to examine the content of their memories and make judgments or commentaries about them.
- 17What are are two important elements of Metamemory1. Diagnosing memory problems accurately and
2. Monitoring the effectiveness of
memory strategies - 18What is – Metacognitive knowledgeChildren’s growing understanding of memory is paralleled by their increased
understanding of all cognitive processes - 19What is Cognitive self regulationSkills at identifying goals, selecting effective
strategies, and monitoring accurately; a characteristic of successful students - 20What are the characteristics of gifted children1. Ability is substantially above average.
2. Passionate about their subject and have a powerful desire to master
it.
3. Creative in their thinking, coming up with novel thoughts and actions.
Creativity is associated with divergent thinking, where the aim is not a single
correct answer, but fresh and unusual lines of thought.
4. Exceptional talents must be nurtured.
5. Often troubled emotionally and unable to get along with their peers - 21What is Intellectual disabilitySubstantially below- average intelligence and problems adapting to an
environment that emerge before the age of 18. - 22What is an example of a condition that leads to intellectual disabilityDown Syndrome
- 23Adaptive behavior in intellectual disability includes..1. Conceptual skills (eg. literacy, time, money)
2. Social skills (interpersonal skills)
3. Practical skills (personal grooming, occupational skills) - 24What IQ Score is considered to have an intellectual disability70 or less
- 25What are the four factors that place individuals at risk for intellectual disability1. Biomedical factors (incl. chromosomal disorders, malnutrition, traumatic brain injury)
2. Social Factors (poverty, impaired parent-child interactions)
3. Behavioural Factors ( child neglect, domestic violence)
4. Educational factors (incl. impaired parenting, inadequate education) - 26Children with learning disability have:1. Difficulty mastering an academic subject
2. Have normal intelligence
3. Are not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as
sensory impairment or inadequate instruction - 27What are the 3 kinds of common learning disabilities1. Developmental dyslexia - Difficulty in reading individual words
2. Impaired reading comprehension - Difficulties understanding words that have been read successfully
3. Mathematical learning disability or developmental dyscalculia – difficulties in
mathematics - 28What are the three defining symptoms of ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER1. Hyperactivity – unusually energetic, fidgety and unable to keep still
2. Inattention – skip from one task to another
3. Impulsivity – act before thinking - 29What is the most common type of learning disabilityDevelopmental Dyslexia
- 30WHAT ARE Three defining symptoms OF ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER1. Hyperactivity – unusually energetic, fidgety and unable to keep still
2. Inattention – skip from one task to another
3. Impulsivity – act before thinking - 31CAUSES OF ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER1. Genes and environmental factors contribute as risk factors:
2. Prenatal exposure to alcohol and other drugs
3. Inadequate diet or exposure to lead - 32ADHD is treated in two ways1. Stimulant drugs (i.e. Ritalin)
2. Behavioral treatments, involving parents - 33What is Word RecognitionIt is a process of identifying a unique pattern of letters
- 34What is ComprehensionIt is the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words
- 35What is Phonological awarenessIt is the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters
- 36What factors contribute to improved comprehension1. Children’s language skills improve, which allows then to understand words they’ve decoded
2. Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing more working memory capacity to be devoted to comprehension
3. Working memory capacity increases
4. Children acquire more knowledge of their physical, social and psychological worlds
5. With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies
6. With experience, children better monitor their comprehension - 37What are the Skills Contributing to Improved Writing1. Knowledge about topics – as children gain more knowledge about the world, they can incorporate this knowledge into their writing.
2. Organizing Writing – arranging information in a readable and interesting manner. Young writers often use a knowledge-telling strategy – writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory. During elementary school years, children begin to use a knowledge-transformation strategy – deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they want to convey to the reader.
3. The mechanical requirements of writing – As they learnt o spell and to generate clear sentences,
they write more easily and more effectively.
4. Skill in Revising – As children develop,they’re better able to find problems with their writing and to
know how to correct them - 38MATH SKILLSBy kindergarten, children have mastered counting.
By first grade, children can count mentally (silently)
By age 8/9, they have learned addition tables
As children learn arithmetic and math in school, they
master mathematical concepts. Compared with students in other developed countries,
U.S. students fare poorly on tests of math skills. - 39DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLSElementary school children’s greater size and strength contribute to improved motor skills. – they run faster and jump farther.
By age 11, they can throw a ball three times farther than they could at age 6 and can jump nearly twice as far.
Fine motor skills improve. Greater dexterity – typing, writing and drawing, working on puzzles, playing a piano, and
building model cars. Gain greater control very their fingers and hands – obvious in children’s handwriting. - 40MOTOR SKILLSGender differences Motor Skills: Girls tend to excel in gross motor skills that require balance and flexibility and balance.
- 41Physical FitnessLeads to better health, self-esteem and a greater achievement in school.
- 42Participating in SportsWhen children play sports, they get exercise and improve their motor skills.
Sports enhances self-esteem, and help children learn initiative, provides social skills.
Helps children use their emerging cognitive skills as they devise new playing strategies or
modify the rules of a game.
Specializing in sports early can lead to injuries, delinquent and antisocial behavior. Outcomes
are positive when sports participation is combined with participation in school, religious activities etc - 43CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT (7 – 11 YRS)* Logical thinking develops – but only as they apply to concrete objects
* Most short-comings have been overcome: egocentrism,
transductive reasoning, animism.
* Abstract thinking is absent – cannot think about abstract ideas
or reason in terms of hypotheses, don’t speculate about possibilities - 44What are Mental OperationsCognitive actions that can be performed
on objects or ideas - 45FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING (ADOLESCENCE)* Highest level of cognitive development – no further cognitive development
* Adolescents/adults think abstractly
Speculate on hypothetical situations and reasons deductively about what is
possible.
* Reflective abstraction: consider the content of their thoughts and reflect on
them/create new ideas, knowledge and insights through the rearrangement of
existing knowledge - 46What is Interpropositional reasoningThey can determine the logical truth or falsity of pairs of statements by looking at the logical relation between the two
- 47What is Deductive reasoningDrawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of
formal-operational thought (also involved in scientific thinking) - 48What is Reflective abstractionTo consider the content of their thoughts and reflect on them/create new ideas, knowledge and insights through the rearrangement of existing knowledge
- 49WHAT IS THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY FOR LEARNING AND REMEMBERING* Does not view development as a sequence of stages.
* Tries to explain how information is processed in order for the person to make sense out of it.
* Proposes that human cognition consists of mental hardware (cognitive
structures like where info is stored) and software (organised sets of cognitive
processes) – just as computers - 50What is working memoryWhere a relatively small
number of thoughts and ideas can be stored briefly - 51What is Long term memoryIt is a permanent storehouse of knowledge that has unlimited capacity
- 52WHAT IS THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY: MEMORY STRATEGIESAs children grow, they learn other memory strategies:
1. Organisation – strategy in which information to be remembered is
structured so that related information is placed together.
2. Elaboration – strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable. - 53WHAT IS THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY: METACOGNITIONAfter children choose a memory strategy, they need to monitor its effectiveness.
Monitoring improves gradually with age.
Diagnosing memory problems accurately and monitoring the effectiveness of
memory strategies are two important elements of Metamemory . - 54What is MetamemoryThe person’s informal understanding of memory; includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies.
- 55What is Metacognitive knowledgeChildren’s growing understanding of memory is paralleled by their increased
understanding of all cognitive processes – - 56What is Cognitive self regulationSkills at identifying goals, selecting effective
strategies, and monitoring accurately; a characteristic of successful students - 57What are the Characteristics of gifted children:1. Ability is substantially above average.
2. Passionate about their subject and have a powerful desire to master
it.
3. Creative in their thinking, coming up with novel thoughts and actions.
4. Exceptional talents must be nurtured
5. Often troubled emotionally and unable to get along with their peers
(due to being more matured) - 58WHAT IS DIVERGENT THINKINGTHE AIM IS NOT A SINGLE ANSWER BUT FRESH AND UNUSUAL LINES OF THOUGHT
- 59What is Intellectual disabilitySubstantially below- average intelligence and problems adapting to an
environment that emerge before the age of 18. - 60Adaptive behavior of Intellectual disability includes1. Conceptual skills
2. Social skills
3.Practical skills
4. IQ Scores of 70 or less are considered to have an intellectual disability - 61What are the Four factors that place individuals at risk for intellectual disability1. Biomedical factors
2. Social Factors
3. Behavioural Factors
4. Educational factors - 62Children with learning disability have1. Difficulty mastering an academic subject
2. Have normal intelligence
3. Are not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as
sensory impairment or inadequate instruction - 63What are the three kinds of common learning disabilities1. Developmental dyslexia - Difficulty in reading individual words
2. Impaired reading comprehension - Difficulties understanding words that have
been red successfully
3. Mathematical learning disability or developmental dyscalculia – difficulties in
mathematics - 64WHAT ARE THE Three defining symptoms ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER1. Hyperactivity – unusually energetic, fidgety and unable to keep still
2. Inattention – skip from one task to another
3. Impulsivity – act before thinking
The diagnosis is often made in middle childhood when it becomes obvious
that a child can’t work alone in a classroom, struggles to make friends, and is disruptive at home.
Childhood – extremely overactive or have bursts of temper
During adolescence – hyperactivity fades but inattention and impulsivity
remains
Young adults – few complete college and many have work related problems. - 65What Genes and environmental factors contribute as risk factors for ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER1. Prenatal exposure to alcohol and other drugs
2. Inadequate diet or exposure to lead - 66ADHD is treated in two ways1. Stimulant drugs (i.e. Ritalin)
2. Behavioral treatments, involving parents - 67WHAT IS Word RecognitionProcess of identifying a unique pattern of letters
- 68What is ComprehensionProcess of extracting meaning from a sequence of words
- 69What are the Foundations of Reading SkillPhonological awareness – the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters
Recognizing words: By sounding out novel words, children increase their store of information about words in
long-term memory that is required for direct retrieval.
Comprehension:
Comprehension is viewed as a product of two general processes: Word decoding & Language
comprehension - 70Several factors contribute to improved comprehension1. Children’s language skills improve, which allows then to understand words they’ve
decoded
2. Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing more working memory
capacity to be devoted to comprehension
3. Working memory capacity increases
4. Children acquire more knowledge of their physical, social and psychological worlds
5. With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies
6. With experience, children better monitor their comprehension - 71What are the Skills Contributing to Improved Writing1. Knowledge about topics – as children gain more knowledge about the world, they can incorporate
this knowledge into their writing.
2. Organizing Writing – arranging information in a readable and interesting manner. Young writers
often use a knowledge-telling strategy – writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from
memory.
During elementary school years, children begin to use a knowledge-transformation strategy – deciding
what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they want to convey to the reader.
3. The mechanical requirements of writing – As they learnt o spell and to generate clear sentences,
they write more easily and more effectively.
4. Skill in Revising – As children develop, they’re better able to find problems with their writing and to
know how to correct them - 72MATH SKILLSBy kindergarten, children have mastered counting
By first grade, children can count mentally (silently)
By age 8/9, they have learned addition tables
As children learn arithmetic and math in school, they
master mathematical concepts
Compared with students in other developed countries,
U.S. students fare poorly on tests of math skills. - 73GROWTH Physical growth during elementary school years continues at the steady pace established
during pre-school years.
Girls are more likely than boys to enter puberty towards the end of the elementary school
years – around age 11 – 12
A well balanced diet is important, i.e major food groups including breakfast – leads to
better focused children who can pay attention in class = better grades and higher scores on
achievement tests.
Just reflect on how this statement translates in the African context, when so many children
are from impoverished communities and go to school hungry… yet some of them are high
achievers. Would you say nurture plays a role in mental development? - 74DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS Elementary school children’s greater size and strength contribute to improved motor
skills. – they run faster and jump farther.
By age 11, they can throw a ball three times farther than they could at age 6 and can jump
nearly twice as far.
Fine motor skills improve
Greater dexterity – typing, writing and drawing, working on puzzles, playing a piano, and
building model cars.
Gain greater control very their fingers and hands – obvious in children’s handwriting
But what happens when motor skills do not develop as they should???
There are certain disorders associated with a lack in development in motor skills, i.e.
Dyspraxia, also known as Developmental co-ordination disorder - 75THE FAMILY AS A SYSTEM During this period- less time with parents, more time
away from home BUT family = security
Children make huge demands on parents
But they also become less dependent on parents
Want more opportunities to made decisions
Express dissatisfaction with existing rules
Compare own family with others - 76What is a Direct Instruction in PARENTAL BEHAVIORTelling a child what to do, when and why
- 77Modeling Learning what to do by watching
Learning what not to do (counterimitation) - 78Feedback Parents indicate whether a behaviour is appropriate and
should continue or should stop - 79Tripartite model of parenting Parents are direct instructors and providers of
opportunities
They choose the type of environments(school, home,
etc) for their children
They also transmit values and attitudes (own and
larger culture) - 80Parenting from a distance-increases during middle
childhood- as child develops autonomy - 81DISCIPLINE Children often disobey their parents requests/rules
Parents faced with task of controlling the child’s behaviour
And teach the child to follow basic rules
Process = discipline: methods of teaching children
character, self control, etc - 82NB basic elements parents have to adhere to Consistency of rules: clear communication of rules,
and enforce rules consistently.
By using inductive techniques - discussion and
explanation vs.
Power assertion – spanking and yelling
Parents lay a foundation of love and care – respected by
children in the long term - 83PUNISHMENT Form of discipline
Involves some negative consequence
For punishment to be effective:
For it to work, must be used properly
Children learn by observation – they model adults way of coping with stress
How parents use any disciplinary tactic more NB than what tactic
NB discipline = teaching children appropriate behaviourrather
than on punishing. - 84SIBLINGS In many cultures, older siblings regularly provide care for younger siblings.
Many older siblings enjoy helping their parents take care of newborns.
Older siblings become a source of care and comfort for younger siblings when they are distressed or upset.
Older siblings also serve as teachers for their young siblings, teaching them to play games and to cook
simple foods.
The basic pattern of sibling interaction seems to be established early in development and remains fairly
stable. - 85ADOPTED CHILDREN Adopted children often experience adversity before being adopted, i.e. maltreatment that led them to be
placed in foster care.
Problems are most likely when children are adopted after infancy and when their care before adoption was
poor.
Quality of life before adoption places some adopted children at risk. And these children often fare well when they receive excellent care after adoption.
Open adoption – an adoption in which adopted children (and their adoptive families) communicate
with the children’s birth family - 86DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE The first year following a divorce is often rocky for parents and children alike.
By the second year most children begin to adjust to their new circumstances, especially when their parents get along.
Joint custody – Both parents retain legal custody of their children following divorce.
Children fare best when custodial and noncustodial parents don’t experience psychological problems
themselves, then they get along with each other, and when they stay involved with their children and
parent effectively.
Blended family – consists of a biological parent, a stepparent and children. - 87What is a Blended familyConsists of a biological parent, a stepparent and children.
- 88PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP Depending on the parenting style adopted- parents may
have a difficult or easier time during this period.
Effective parents gradually shift control from adult to
child = coregulation.
Based on give and take, mutual respect
Coregulation supports and protects while and prepares for adolescents - 89PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP GONE AWRY: CHILD MALTREATMENT. Two common forms of maltreatment:1. Physical Abuse – assault that leads to injuries
2. Neglect – not being provided with adequate food, clothing or
medical care.
3. Psychological abuse is also quite common – ridicule,
rejection and humiliation. - 90WHO ARE THE ABUSING PARENTS?1. Parents were maltreated themselves, believing abuse is a normal part of childhood
2. Inconsistent discipline.
3. The couple’s interactions are often unpredictable, unsupportive, and unsatisfying for both husbands and
wives.
4. Children whose behaviors irritate their parents sooner or later are likely to be the targets. - 91PEER RELATIONSHIPSDuring this period – more inclined to interact with other children of the same age and gender
For the sake of: friendship, affections &
fellowship. - 92Nature & function of peer groupo Comradeship
o Opportunities for trying out new behaviours
o Transfer of knowledge and information
o Obedience
o Gender roles
o Emotional bond
o relationships - 93FRIENDSHIPSWhereas peer groups provide children with insight into larger social structures, one-to-one friendships contribute to the
development of trust and sensitivity.
Children’s friendships progress through 3 phases
1. Play-based friendships (3-7 years)
2. Loyal and faithful friends (8-11 years)
3. Intimate friends (adolescence and beyond)
4. During middle childhood friendships is a mutually agreed-on
relationship
5. Trust is very important
6. Complex and psychologically based - 94POPULARITY & REJECTIONRefers to likeability
Peer acceptance studies through – socio-metric techniques
Five distinct categories:
1. Popular:
Popular-pro-social and popular-antisocial
Liked by many classmates
2. Rejected:
Rejected aggressive and rejected-withdrawn
Disliked by many classmates
3. Neglected:
Ignored, neither liked nor disliked
4. Controversial:
Intensely liked or disliked by classmates
5. Average Children:
Liked and disliked by different classmates, but with little intensity
Peer acceptance = predictor of psychological adjustment - 95AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN AND THEIR VICTIMS By the time toddlers are old enough to play with each other, they
show aggression.
Instrumental aggression – aggression used to achieve an
explicit goal
Hostile aggression – unprovoked aggression that seems to
have the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating
another child.
When children are chronic victims of aggression, they’re often
lonely, anxious, and depressed; they dislike school and a low self
esteem. - 96PEER VICTIMISATION Destructive form of peer interaction – also called:
Bullying: deliberate, conscious desire to hurt, threaten and
frighten someone.
Includes:-
Physical bullying
Emotional bullying
Verbal bullying
Non-verbal bullying
Relational bullying
Sexual bullying
Cyberbullying
The bully acts purposefully
Their aim is to gain control - 97BULLIES Bullies attack without reason- victims are easy targets
3 types of bullies
1. The aggressive bully
2. The anxious bully
3. Group adherents
Bullying – far reaching consequences for victims and perpetrators
Boys more than girls seem to be both perpetrator and victim - 98What is PubertyDenotes two general types of physical changes that mark the transition from childhood to young adulthood:
1. Bodily Changes
2. Sexual Maturation - 99PHYSICAL GROWTHThere is a growth spurt during adolescence.
Girls typically begin their growth spurt about two years before boys. The
growth spurt in girls occurs in early adolescence between the ages of 11 years and 15 years.
The growth spurt in boys occurs between the ages of 13 years and 17 years
and usually begins a year after the testes start enlarging. Bones become longer and denser, hence the growth in height
Muscle fibers become thicker and denser. Body fat increases
Heart and lung capacity increases more in boys than in girls - 100BRAIN GROWTHTwo features of brain development that begin early in life are nearly
complete in adolescence:
1. Myelination – acquisition of fatty insulation that allows neurons to transmit
information faster.
2. Synaptic pruning – the weeding out of unnecessary connections between
neurons.
This means that adolescents can process information more efficiently than the
child.
Some brain regions reach maturity:
Brain systems that are sensitive to reward may reach maturity
Brain systems responsible for self-control aren’t fully specialized until adulthood - 101SEXUAL MATURATIONSexual maturation or puberty begins at different ages depending on genetic
and environmental factors. Sexual maturity begins earlier today than a century ago, probably because of improvements in nutrition, general health, and living conditions. For example, the average age that girls begin menstruating has decreased by about 3 years over the past 100 years. However, whenever sexual maturation begins, it typically occurs in the same order.
Sexual maturation includes change in:
Primary sex characteristics – physical signs of maturity directly linked to the
reproductive organs.
Secondary sex characteristics – physical signs of maturity not directly linked
to reproductive organs - 102For girls, puberty begins with...Growth of the breasts and the growth
spurt followed by the appearance of pubic hair. - 103What is MenarcheOnset of menstruation (typically age 13)
- 104For boys, puberty commences with...The growth of the testes and
scrotum, followed by the appearance of pubic hair, the start of the growth spurt and the growth of the penis - 105What is SpermarcheThe first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm (typically age 13)
- 106Pubertal changes take place whenThe pituitary gland signals the
adrenal gland, ovaries and testes to secrete hormones that initiate physical changes - 107Estrogen and androgen are present in..Both boys and girls
- 108The timing of puberty is influenced by..Health and nutrition & Social environment; for example, puberty occurs earlier for girls who experience stress harsh punishment, or depression.
- 109WHAT IS THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF PUBERTY1. Body Image - Young adolescents are often quite concerned about their
appearance. Concern with body image often leads to obsessive dieting.
2. Response to Menarche and Spermarche - When forewarned, adolescents respond positively to menarche and spermarche.
3. Moodiness - Adolescents are moodier than children or adults primarily
because their moods shift in response to frequent changes in activities and
social settings. The prevalence of depression increases in adolescence,
especially among girls.
4. Rate of Maturation – Early maturation tends to be harmful, especially for
girls. - 110NUTRITIONFor proper growth, teenagers need to consume adequate calories, calcium and iron.
Unfortunately, many teenagers do not receive adequate nutrition. - 111What are the three common eating disorders in adolescence1. obesity,
2. anorexia nervosa,
3. bulimia nervosa.
All can have serious long-term effects. Anorexia and bulimia affect mostly girls.
Outcomes for bulimia tend to be better than for anorexia. - 112Factors that contribute to obesity1. Heredity
2. Parents
3. Sedentary lifestyle
4. Too little sleep - 113Anorexia nervosaA disorder marked by a
persistent refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being overweight. Anorexia can lead to death if untreated. - 114Bulimia NervosaIs a disease in which people
alternate between binge eating – periods when they eat uncontrollably – and purging with selfinduced vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. - 115WHAT IS BMIBODY MASS INDEX (THE ADJUSTED RATIO OF WEIGHT TO HEIGHT
- 116PHYSICAL FITNESS The benefits of participating in sports include..1. Improved physical fitness,
2. Enhanced self-esteem,
3. An understanding about team work - 117The potential costs of participating in sports includeInjury and abuse of
performance-enhancing drugs. - 118Leading causes of death among adolescents include:1. Motor vehicle accidents,
2. Firearm use,
3. Suicide.
Marijuana, alcohol, and tobacco are the most popular drugs with adolescents
and can lead to the use of hard drugs.
Adolescents are far more accident-prone than children or adults, in part
because they believe the rewards of risky behavior far out-weigh the potential harm - 119KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning:Pre-conventional,
conventional, and
post-conventional.
Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development. - 120PRE-CONVENTIONALThroughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers.
A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring. - 121Sub-stages of the pre-conventional level1. Obedience orientation – moral reasoning is based on the belief that adults know what is right and wrong.
2. Instrumental orientation – moral reasoning is based on the aim of looking out for one’s own needs. Expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position. - 122LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONALThroughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships.
Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned. - 123Sub-stages of the conventional level:3. Interpersonal norms – moral reasoning is based on winning the approval of others.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
4. Social system morality – moral reasoning is based on a personal moral code. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly
dictated by an outside force. - 124LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONALThroughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
- 125Sub-stages of the post-conventional level:Social contract – mora reasoning is based on the belief that laws are for the good
of all members of society. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
6. Universal ethical principles – moral reasoning is based on moral principles that apply to all. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty - 126EVALUATING KOHLBERG’S THEORYKohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other values,with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages are culturally biased—
that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of justice based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-Western societies that place
less emphasis on individualism.
Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be deficient in their moral
reasoning abilities when compared to men. Carol Gilligan , a research assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based so narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and females reason differently: girls and women focus more on staying connected and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently dem - 127Face-to-face and virtual friendships are based on the same principles: affective or emotional disclosure,
sharing activities of mutual interest,
and as a source of fun. - 128Men have fewer close friends and base them on shared activities, such asHaving a braai, playing sports,
watching sports on television, sharing a beer, - 129Women have more close friend and base them on emotional sharing, such asTalking about their boyfriends, family, life issues and successes.
- 130What are the 5 stages (ABCD MODEL) of developmental perspective of adult relationships1. Acquaintanceship
2. Buildup
3. Continuation
4. Deterioration
5. Ending - 131Love does not occur in a single form but consists of distinct components: Passion, Intense physical, cognitive and emotional attraction to another
Intimacy, Development of reciprocal trust, openness and acceptance
Forms the basis of close relationships, i.e. marriage
and
Commitment, Conscious decision to maintain the love relationship, care for and support each other - 132What is assortative matingPeople find partners based on their similarity to each other.
- 133What is Equity theory Believe what you getting out is proportionate to what you putting in
Equitable ones last, inequitable don’t - 134What is Assortative mating theory Based on similar or opposite characteristics.
Selecting a mate works best when there are shared values, goals and interests. There are
cross-cultural differences in which specific aspects of these are most important. - 135What is an Abusive relationshipRelationships in which one person becomes aggressive toward the
partner - 136What is a battered woman syndromeSituation occurring when a woman believes that she cannot leave the abusive situation and may even go as far as to kill her abuser.
- 137Levels of aggressive behavior range from verbal aggression to
physical aggression to
murdering one’s partner. - 138 People remain in abusive relationships for many reasons, including cultural factors,
low self esteem, and
the belief they cannot leave. - 139What is verbal aggressionInsults
Yelling
Name-calling - 140What is physical aggressionPushing
Slapping
Shoving - 141What is severe aggressionBeating
Punching
Hitting with object - 142What are the causes of Verbal aggressionNeed to control
Misuse of power
Jealousy
Marital discord - 143WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF PHYSICAL AGGRESSIONAccept violence as a means of control
Modeling of physical aggression
Abused as a child
Aggressive personality styles
Alcohol abuse - 144What are the causes of severe aggressionPersonality disorder
Emotional lability
Poor self-esteem - 145MARITAL AND NON-MARITAL LIFESTYLESRates of marriage in SA is declining, however, positive aspects:
Married people tend to be happier, live longer (physically and psychologically healthier)
Regarded as the best institution in which to raise children
Greater intimacy, love, especially once children leave - 146Types of relationships: Vitalised/financially focused/conflicted/harmonious/
Traditional (family & religious values)/balanced/devitalised - 147What are the Factors promoting a successful relationship:Age
Similarity
Marital equity
effective interaction
personality - 148SINGLEHOOD Most adults in the 20’s are single.
People remain single for many reasons; gender differences exist. Ethnic differences in rates of singlehood reflect differences in age at marriage and social factors.
Singles recognize the pluses and minuses in the lifestyle.
There are health and longevity consequences from remaining single for men but not for women. - 149What is CohabitationPeople in a committed, intimate, sexual relationship who live
together but are not married. - 1503 primary reasons for cohabitating:1. Convenience (to share expenses) -Temporary arrangement of convenience
2. Trial Marriage
3. Substitute marriage - Permanent alternative to marriage
Cohabitation is Less stable than marriages
In some cultures, cohabitation is a viable alternative to marriage. - 151LGBTQ RELATIONSHIPS LGBTQ stands for; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning
LGBTQ couples are similar to married heterosexual couples in terms of relationship
issues.
Lesbian couples tend to be more egalitarian.
The option to marry is changing the nature of LGBTQ relationships - 152Marital successUmbrella term referring to any marital outcome
- 153Marital qualitySubjective evaluation of the couple’s relationship on a number of
different dimensions - 154Marital adjustmentDegree to which a husband and wife accommodate to each
other over a certain period of time. - 155Marital satisfactionGlobal assessment of one’s marriage. Marital satisfaction tends to
decline until the children leave home, although individual differences are apparent,
especially in long-term marriages - 156What predicts a successful Marriage?1. Age – the younger the partners are, the lower the odds that the marriage will last. Other reasons
that increase or decrease the likelihood a marriage will last include financial security and pregnancy
at the time of the marriage.
2. Homogamy – similarity of values and interests
3. The feeling that the relationship is equal. Exchange theory – relationship, such as marriage, based
on each partner contributing something to the relationship that the other would be hard-pressed to provide.
Marriages are most intense during the early years. Most long-term marriages tend to be happy, and partners in them express fewer negative emotions.
Sharing values and beliefs helps sustain marriages. - 157PARENTHOOD Psychoanalytic perspective Women have a deeply rooted and instinctive need to bear and raise children
Erikson: generativity vs stagnation - 158PARENTHOOD Functional perspective Desire for immortality
- 159PARENTHOOD Personal perspectiveExtension of the self
- 160PARENTHOOD Social perspective Security for the parents’ old age
- 161What is a Nuclear familyConsists only of parent(s) and child(ren).
- 162Extended familyconsists of grandparents and other relatives, parents and children
- 163DIVORCE Half of all new marriages end in divorce.
Probability of divorce seems to be higher for people who marry young, who live together before marrying, parents
divorced
Increasingly: lack of communication, emotional fulfilment, incompatibility, basic unhappiness, lack of qualities that make a
strong marriage. Societal attitudes against divorce have eased and expectations about marriage have increased - 164React to divorce? severe crisis
extensive disruption – failure, hostility, anger, self-blame
Adjust to new identities – social circle, income, single parenting
Both partners equally affected?
Recovery from divorce is different for men and women. Men tend to have a tougher time in the short run. Women
clearly tend to have a harder time in the long run, often for financial reasons.
Difficulties between divorced partners usually involve visitation and child support. - 165RE-MARRIAGE Most divorced couples remarry. Young adults – will try again
Enjoy better communication, resolve disagreements more positively, more equal;
divide chores fairly
However, see failure faster
Second marriages are vulnerable to stress if stepchildren are involved.
Remarriage during late adulthood more satisfying but may be resisted by adult children. - 166What is Emerging adulthoodPeriod between late
teens and mid – to late 20’s when individuals are not adolescents but are not yet fully adults.
A time to explore careers, self-identity, and
commitments.
(A time when certain biological and
physiological developmental trends peak and brain development continues in different ways) - 167A role transition (emerging adulthood)Is movement into the next stage of
development marked by the assumption of new responsibilities and duties. - 168What are the Cross Cultural Evidence of Role Transitions:Rites of passage:
Rituals marking initiation into adulthood.
May involve highly elaborate steps that take days or weeks, or they may be compressed into a few minutes. Initiates are usually dressed in apparel reserved for the ritual to denote their special
position.
In SA context, consider the Xhosa men going to the “bush” for circumcision and the Zulu women rituals (virginity), traditional marriages that mark the rite of passage into adulthood (child
bearing).
In many cultures, rites of passage to adulthood are connected with
religious rituals.
Some tribal cultures mark the transition to adulthood in public ways so that the whole community witnesses - 169Neuroscience,The prefrontal cortex fully develops during young adulthood and forms key connections with other
areas of the brain. - 170INTIMACY V ISOLATION (6TH STAGE)CONFLICT ARISES AT THE YOUNG ADULTHOOD STAGE OF LIFE.
THE MAIN EVENTS AT THIS STAGE ARE MAKING RELATIONSHIPS AND LOVE. A PERSON WITH A FIRM SENSE OF IDENTITY IS PREPARED FOR INTIMACY OR GIVING ONE SELF TO ANOTHER.
ERIKSON BELIEVED IT WAS VITAL THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP CLOSE COMMITTED RELATIONSHIPS THAT ARE COMMITTED AND SECURE. HE BELIEVED THAT A STRONG SENSE OF IDENTITY WAS IMPORTANT TO TO DEVELOP INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS. - 171Education & Workforce AttainmentRoughly 70% of high school graduates continue their education at the postsecondary level. College student experience transitions in thinking. Returning adult students (college students over age 25) tend
to be more focused on their academic program, but face challenges balancing education, career and family. So it means balancing these aspects of their lives and this can be quite a challenge.
Many emerging adults obtain career training as a way to further education without obtaining a college degree.
Joining the workforce is a major step toward financial independence, which in turn is a major marker in achieving
adulthood - 172Research evidence for Erikson’s theory is conflicting:A meta-analytic study of the connection between identity and intimacy showed that men and women resolve identity and intimacy issues differently under certain circumstances. For example, some women resolve intimacy issues before identity issues by marrying
and rearing children, and only later do they deal with the question of
their own identity. This is true for so many women who get married
very young, or have children very young (in high school for example).
Middle aged women who go to college for the first time is an
example of this form of identity development. Robbins and Wilner (2001) – quarter life crisis – describes how life - 173Robinson (2015) – early adulthood should be separated into two distinct stages1. Emerging adulthood – flux and instability of the 18 – 25 age range.
2. Early adulthood - which is a more settled phase. Begins with a
normative period of turmoil, referred to as a “quarter life crisis”. - 174Quarter life crisis can take 2 forms:1. The locked out form – feeling unable to enter adult roles.
2. The locked in form – feeling trapped in adult roles. - 175When do people become Adults?Achieving adulthood takes much longer now than in generations past and that the psychosocial issues people face are more complex. As society continues to shed formal rites of passage,especially those connected to religious ceremonies, the exact moment a person becomes an adult will become less and less certain.
The transition to adulthood depends on numerous cultural and psychological factors.
In cultures without clearly defined rites of passage, defining oneself as an adult rests on one’s perception of whether
personally relevant key criteria have been met - 176—
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- 198WHAT DOES THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BRAIN REGULATEMOTOR CONTROL OVER THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE BODY
- 199WHAT DOES THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE BRAIN REGULATEMOTOR CONTROL OVER THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BODY
- 200WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM IN THE BRAINHELPS COORDINATE BEHAVIOURS NEEDED TO SATISFY MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL URGES. ALSO INVOLVED IN MEMORY.
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- Flashcards on PSYCHOLOGY, created by Monika L on 22/09/2017.
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