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Flashcards

case studies: issues and debates, addiction, bio

rose prince psychology A level English 86 cards

Cards in this deck (86)

  1. 1ADDICTION Prochaska's (1977)six-stage model of behaviour change to addiction behaviour
    - explains the process of changing to unhealthy to healthy behaviours
    - pre-contemplation
    - contemplation
    - preparation
    - action
    -maintenance
    - termination
  2. 2ADDICTION Describing addiction: Physical dependancePhysical dependence centres on the withdrawal symptoms experienced when the behavior or the drug stops. generally these include anxiety, pain, irritability and shaking.
    people with a physical dependence need to take the drug in order to feel normal
  3. 3ADDICTION Describing addiction: Psychological dependancea drug becomes a central part of an individuals thoughts, emotions and activities resulting in a strong urge to use the drug
    this include craving which is an intense desire to repeat the experience associated with a particular drug or activity, from the moment the addict wakes up their thinking is dominated by their next fix.
  4. 4ADDICTION Describing addiction: Tolerancethis occurs if drugs (or the activity) are used for a long period of time, increased tolerance means an individual no longer responses to the drug in the same way, with the result the larger and larger doses are needed in order to feel the same effects as before
    can occurs through metabolic tolerance, changes in receptor density
  5. 5ADDICTION Describing addiction: Withdrawal syndromethis occurs when a user abstains from the drug. they are an indication of the person’s physical dependance on the drug as the body attempts to deal with the absence of the drug’s affect, the user will then use the drug to relieve these symptoms, generally these include anxiety, pain, irritability and shaking.
  6. 6ADDICTION Risk factors in the development of addiction: Genetic vulnerabilitythe idea that someone may be more likely to an addict because of their genetic make-up
    also the dopamine receptor gene - A1 variant of the DRD2 gene
    Blum and Payne (1991) suggests that individuals who are vulnerable to drug addiction show abnormally low level of the neurotransmitter dopamine and decreased ability to activate dopamine receptors in the receptors in the reward centre of the brain
    Blum et al (1990) reported that a particular variant ((the A1 variant) of the dopamine receptor gene (DRD2 gene), which is associated with fewer dopamine receptor sites (resulting in lower levels of dopamine in the brain), occurred with much higher frequency in the DNA of samples taken from alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics.
  7. 7ADDICTION Genetics and the Diathesis-Stress ModelResearch suggests that a gene-environment interaction is needed for an addictive behaviour to develop, as individuals with a genetic predisposition/vulnerability will not become addicted if they are not exposed to the substance in their environment. This is known as the Diathesis-Stress Model.
  8. 8ADDICTION Risk factors in the development of addiction: Genetic vulnerabilitySultske et al (2010) gambling addiction related to genes
    a study of 2,889 twins investigate the role of genetic and environmental factors in the development of gambling addiction . researched water these factors interact in the same say women’s gambling addiction as in men’s
    they found that identical twins who were gamblers were more likely to have a twin who was also a gambler than non-identical twins. the researchers suggested this was more of a genetic link rather than environmental factors.
    Kandler and Prescott (1998)
    compared concordance levels of drug abuse among MZ and DZ twins. the classification of drug abuse was the criteria set out by the DSM-IV and data from nearly 2000 twins was used
    they found a genetic component to becoming a drug abuser / developing drug dependancy
  9. 9ADDICTION Risk factors in the development of addiction: Stressturning to behaviours and drugs that gave you temporary relief form stress is a sort of coping mechanism ‘self medication’ model (Gelkopf et al (2002), long-term stress increases the likelihood of someone becoming addicted
    traumatic stress: Robins et al (1974) interviewed US soldiers within a year of their return from the Vietnam War, almost half had used opium or heroine during their tour of duty, with about 20% reporting that they had developed physical or psychological dependance for herioin at some point during their time in Vietnam
  10. 10ADDICTION Risk factors in the development of addiction: PersonalityKrueger et al (1998) identified a number of personality traits, including sensation-seeking and impulsivity (behaving without thinking and without considering the risk involved in the behaviour), that are commonly associated with addictive behaviours such as alcohol abuse and gambling.
    sensation-seeking personality - the generalised tendency to seek varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experiences, they are easily bored
    Zuckerman (1983) demonstrated a link between he need for novelty and addictive behaviours. Zuckerman claimed that high sensation have a lower appreciation of risk, and anticipate arousal as more positive than lower sensation seekers. he found a relationship between sensation-seeking and gambling as gamblers entertain the risk of monetary loos for the loos for the positive reinforcement produced by high arousal and winning
  11. 11ADDICTION Family influences (risk factors in the development of addiction)Social learning, if the individual sees that model rewarded for their behaviour, then the vicarious reinforcement is going to increase the likelihood of the observer imitating the behaviour, through identification, vicarious reinforcement, meditational processes
    expectancies are the associations we make form observing the environment around us. If positive expectancies are formed, then this can increase the likelihood of trying a substance or behaviour and influence the chances of becoming addicted. Expectancies are a form of schema.
    Dunn and Goldman (1998) found that 7-18yr olds children’s experiences of alcohol mirrored those of adults. this suggests that the child’s environment can heavily influence attitudes towards substance abuse and potentially addiction
  12. 12ADDICTION Parental influences (risk factors in the development of addiction)Reith and Dobie also found patterns of gambling were transmitted within families in gendered ways, with males’ first experience of gambling being through their fathers, and females’ through their mothers. The types of gambling activity that individuals were introduced to in this way were also gendered, with females introduced mainly to machines and bingo, and males to sports betting.Style of parenting, particularly in terms of the degree of parental control (how much a parent intervenes in their child’s life) and parental warmth (how much positive affect a parent shows for their child) has been implicated in family influences on addictive behaviour.
    Authoritative parents show warmth, but also exert appropriate control. Research has found this form of parenting to be associated with the shaping of psychological resilience and emotional well-being in children, and lowered levels of substance abuse (Fletcher et al., 1995).
  13. 13ADDICTION Sibling influence (Windle, 2000). Risk factors in the development of addictionStudies have shown that the behaviour of older siblings is strongly associated with adolescent substance use. Moreover, sibling influence has generally been shown to be stronger than parental influence when it comes to substance use and deviant behaviour in general. In a sample of high school students in the US, sibling alcohol use had a stronger association with adolescent alcohol use than did parental alcohol use (Windle, 2000).
  14. 14ADDICTION Peer pressure Risk factors in the development of addiction– the direct or indirect encouragement from one’s own age group – to engage in activities that they may or may not want to engage in, is often cited as a reason for why adolescents engage in potentially risky behaviours such as smoking or substance use.
    Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) a significant part of an individuals self-concept is formed as a result of the group that they are a part (the in-group). as it is essential to be associated with the in-group in order to be socially accepted, this make it more likely that the individual more likely to adopt their behaviours.
  15. 15ADDICTION Peer pressure studies Eiser et al (1991) Litt and Stock (2011)- Eiser et al (1991) - social networks, the emergence of risky behaviour and the subsequent development of addictive behaviour has focused on the importance of peer networks - idea that social networks often consist of individuals with similar habits. e.g. among adolescents, smokers tend to be friends with smokers and non-smokers are usually friends with non-smokers
    - Litt and Stock (2011) found that teenagers who viewed Facebook profiles that portrayed alcohol use are more likely to drink themselves. after viewing these profiles, they reported a greater willingness to use alcohol, with a more positive feelings toward it and lower perceptions of the negative consequences of it. ∴ that exposure to social media alter’s adolescents normative perceptions and other alcohol-related risk cognitions.
  16. 16ADDICTION Explanations for nicotine addiction - Brain chemistry → the role of dopamineNicotine becomes addictive because it activates areas of the brain that regulate feelings of pleasure i.e. the reward pathways of the brain
    Nicotine imitates the natural neurotransmitter, AETYLOLINE → binds to nicotinic acetyloline receptor sites → present on the neurons of the rental segmental area (VTA) → these neurons projects terminations into nucleus accumbers “the reward centre of the brain” → relates dopamine “feelings of pleasure” then encouraging the individual to repeat the behaviour
  17. 17ADDICTION Nicotine regulation modelindividuals continue to smoke to avoid withdrawal symptoms e.g. impairment of mood and concentration as nicotine level in the blood drop
  18. 18ADDICTION Explanations for nicotine addiction - Brain chemistry chemistry → research support Dani and Basi’s (2001)Dani and Basi’s (2001) found that part of the reason nicotine is so addictive is because it acts upon the dopaminergic systems which helps reinforce rewarding behaviour. This shows a direct relationship between the neural mechanisms in the brain and the rewarding effects felt while smoking.
  19. 19ADDICTION Explanations for nicotine addiction → learning theory OC(+) reinforcement → (the provision of reward)
    - psychological rewards: the activation of reward pathways in the brain & release of dopamine
    - psychological rewards: the perception that it make you relaxed and reduced your stress
    - social rewards: praise from peers &increased popularity
    (-) reinforcement → if a behaviour results in an individual avoiding an unpleasant situation, the the behaviour is more likely to reoccur, beh is ∴ reinforced if the individual can avoid a (-) stimulus
    (-) reinforcement could explain MAINTENANCE (the withdrawal symptoms i.e. sickness & irrationality, when it is reintroduced to the system it provides a sense of relief which increases the likelihood of smoking again. Also RELAPSE, long-term abstinence from smoking leads to unpleasant physical withdrawal symptoms, reintroducing it into the symptoms provides relief
  20. 20ADDICTION Explanations for nicotine addiction → learning theory CC Cue reactivity and conditioned cueCue reactivity - objects & environments associated with a drug or behaviour become conditioned stimuli, so people experience greater craving & physiological arousal when exposed to the objects & environments associated with their addiction
    Conditioned Cue - object and/or environment that becomes associated with the primary reinforcers (nicotine is ∴ a secondary reinforcer)
  21. 21ADDICTION Explanations for nicotine addiction → learning theory CC(US) → The ‘nicotine effect:’ nicotine activates brain reward pathways, increasing the release of dopamine
    (UR) → In response to the change of dopamine levels, the brain attempts to restore equilibrium by lowering dopamine levels back to normal
    Any stimulus that is present when the individual smokes (NS), but over time, after repeated associations, becomes strongly associated with the nicotine effect, becoming CS (conditioned cues).
    When the individual comes into contact with these cues, they signal to the brain that nicotine is on its way. The brain therefore anticipates the effects of nicotine.
    When a situation arises whereby there is the presence of the CS (a conditioned cue), this triggers the anticipation of nicotine. However, in the absence of smoking, a state of disequilibrium occurs as dopamine levels are lowered below the optimum level CR. The individual experiences this as withdrawal symptoms. The individual is then motivated to smoke in order to relieve these symptoms.
  22. 22ADDICTION Social Learning Theory & the Initiation of SmokingSocial Learning theory proposes that young people begin smoking as a consequence of the social models they have around them who smoke (Kandel & Wu, 1995).
    From this perspective, smoking is initially a function of parental & peer role modelling & the vicarious reinforcement that leads young people to expect positive consequences from smoking.
    Outcome expectancies are the associations (either positive or negative) that an individual makes from observing their environment.
  23. 23ADDICTION Social Learning Theory & the Initiation of Smoking → Goldbergs et al (1981) Karcher & Finn (2005)Goldbergs et al (1981) → used a system where the monkeys had to press a lever to revive nicotine. The researchers found that the monkey pressed the level at a rate that was similar to the level that woes be expected with cocaine. This suggest addictive behaviour and the idea that it is accessed for it reinforcing effect.
    Karcher & Finn (2005) → Youths whose parents smoked were 1.88 x more likely to take up smoking. they were 2.64 x more likely to smoke if their sibling smoked. if close friend smoked they were 8x more likely to smoke than if their parents, siblings and fined did not smoke
  24. 24ADDICTION Explanations for gambling addiction → Learning theory OC(+) reinforcement Physiological rewards: e.g. adrenaline rush; increased dopamine in the nucleus accumbens => pleasure. Psychological rewards: e.g. the ‘near miss’ – the gambler thinking they are close to winning, which leads to excitement; raised self-esteem
    Social rewards: e.g. peer praise – congratulated by others - Slot machines reinforce reward by playing cheers and claps when someone wins
    Financial rewards: experiencing a win
    Contiguity is the co-occurrence of an action and a reinforcement/ punishment.
    The reward or positive reinforcement for gambling is immediate, so is ‘time contiguous.’
    Losses on a slot machine result in immediate punishment, but the overall negative feeling does not arise until there has been a series of losses, so the association is not as strong.
    The individual wins are much bigger in magnitude than each loss, so the ‘punishment’ does not evoke such a strength of feeling.
  25. 25ADDICTION Gambling: Operant Conditioning - Partial and Variable Reinforcement (Skinner)The schedules of reinforcement studied by Skinner’s work on rats and pigeons help us to understand how gambling behaviour is maintained.
    Partial reinforcement: the behaviour is only sometimes reinforced (after a predictable (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) - number of responses/period of time).
    Variable reinforcement: a type of partial reinforcement, where a proportion of responses are rewarded, after an unpredictable number of responses or time interval.
  26. 26ADDICTION Gambling: Operant ConditioningFixed ratio: a reinforcer is given for a fixed number of responses e.g. one reinforcement every ten responses
    Variable ratio: the number of responses between reinforcement varies again, making the reinforcement unpredictable
    Fixed variable: a reinforcement is given at fixed time intervals e.g. every 30 seconds
    Variable interval: the time interval between reinforcements varies, so it is unpredictable
  27. 27ADDICTION Gambling: Operant Conditioning ‘Big win’ hypothesis The ‘Near miss’‘Big win’ hypothesis → Many pathological gamblers report having a ‘big win’ early in their gambling career or an early prolonged winning streak. They continue to gamble because of a desire to repeat that early ‘peak experience’ (Aasved, 2003) The ‘Near miss’ → Gambling can provide reinforcement even in the absence of a win. Near misses (losses that are ‘close’ to being wins) create a brief period of excitement/thrill that encourage further gambling (Reid, 1986).
  28. 28ADDICTION Gambling: Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning can also explain gambling addiction, particularly the maintenance and relapse aspects.
    Conditioned cues: Stimuli (objects or environments) that occur immediately before or at the same time as the gambling behaviour become heavily associated with the primary reinforcer (gambling) over time.
    These conditioned cues act as triggers for gambling because they have the ability to increase arousal, thus encouraging someone to revisit a casino or amusement arcade, to experience the positive emotions associated with it.
    It is possible that an association is made to the flashing lights, ringing bells and the sound of coins tumbling out of the fruit machines, due to the excitement experienced whilst gambling. Pubs, alcohol and betting slips could also act as conditioned cues.
  29. 29ADDICTION Gambling: Cognitive BiasesThe Gambler’s Fallacy: Assuming previous events will influence future events, which are in fact entirely random e.g. coin toss – assuming that three heads in a row will be balanced out by the opposite outcome (same number of tails).
    Illusions of Control: The individual believes that they can directly manipulate the outcome of the event through superstitious behaviours e.g. kissing dice before throwing. They might also show an exaggerated self-confidence in their ability to influence chance e.g. believing they can ‘beat the system’.
    The ‘Near Miss’ Bias: the gambler may think that they are constantly nearly winning, not constantly losing.
    Recall Bias (Availability Bias): Remembering and overestimating wins; forgetting about/rationalising losses (losses won’t necessarily act as a disincentive for future gambling).
    Flexible Attributions: When the gambler explains wins as due to his/her skill and losses to other people’s influences.
    ‘Just World’ Hypothesis: Gamblers believe they ‘deserve’ to win having lost so often on previous occasions.
  30. 30ADDICTION Gambling: Cognitive Biases → Irrational Beliefs Griffiths (1994)The study took place in an amusement arcade.Griffiths compared 30 regular gamblers (who played fruit machines more than once a week) with 30 non-regular gamblers (who played less than once a month).Each individual was given £3 to spend playing a fruit machine (‘Fruitskill’) in the arcade. Each gamble was 10 pence (30 gambles).
    They were given the objective of staying on the machine for 60 gambles and making back the £3, which would enable them to continue gambling if they wished to do so.
    FINDNGS: Regular gamblers believed they were more skilled than they actually were.Regular gamblers were more likely to make irrational statements during play. For example: ‘the machine hates me’, ’this fruity is in a good mood’, ’I had a feeling it was going to chew up those tokens fairly rapidly’, ‘I had a feeling it had paid out earlier because it’s not giving me a chance’
    26 of the 30 regular gamblers believed success was either due to skill or equally chance and skill, whereas the majority of the non-regular gamblers believed the game was ‘mostly chance’ and none believed it involved any ‘skill’
  31. 31ADDICTION Reducing addiction: Drug therapy Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT)a substitute agonist (nicotine mimics acetylcholine) and works by gradually releasing nicotine into the bloodstream, at much lower levels than in a cigarette and also without all the other harmful chemicals found in cigarette smoke. NRT desensitises nicotinic acetylcholine receptors sites in the brain.
    NRT helps the individual control their cravings for cigarettes and improves their mood, thus reducing the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms typically experienced when abstaining from smoking. over time the patches are reduced in size (less nicotine) so the patient can be gradually withdrawn over a period of two to three months. e.g. nicotine gum, patches, electronic cigarettes
  32. 32ADDICTION Reducing addiction: Drug therapy Varenicline (Champix)nicotine-free pills that reduce a person’s craving for tobacco and help with any withdrawal symptoms. It reduces cravings for nicotine like NRT, but it also blocks the rewarding and reinforcing effects of smoking.
    works by blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (preventing them being stimulated by nicotine if the person were to smoke), yet still triggering dopamine release, therefore acting as a partial agonist (it has dual agonist and antagonist activities).
    (-) Possible side effects can include: Feeling and being sick; difficulty sleeping (insomnia), sometimes with vivid dreams; dry mouth; headaches; dizziness
  33. 33ADDICTION Drugs and Receptor: Agonists and AntagonistsAgonists: have the same action as a neurotransmitter i.e. by stimulating receptors e.g. nicotine, morphine
    Antagonists: stop the action of a neurotransmitter i.e. by blocking the receptor sites
  34. 34ADDICTION Reducing Addiction: Drug Therapy for Gambling AddictionNaltrexone has been used to treat gambling addiction.
    Naltrexone is a synthetic opiate antagonist.
    It works by blocking opioid receptors in the brain, an important step in the pathway for processing dopamine, the neurotransmitter that activates the brain’s feeling of reward. This therefore reduces the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.
    Consequently, the individual no longer experiences the rewarding effects of the gambling behaviour. Repeated lack of the desired effects is thought to break the addiction i.e. if no pleasure is experienced when engaging in the behaviour, then the reinforcing properties of the behaviour are reduced, thus the individual will no longer be motivated to engage in the addictive behaviour, reducing cravings and the urge to gamble.
  35. 35ADDICTION Drug Therapy for Gambling Addiction Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)There is evidence to support serotonin dysfunction in pathological gamblers.
    SSRI’s (an anti-depressant) work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin at the pre-synaptic membrane, resulting in greater availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft to bind to receptor sites.
    SSRI’s reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety, which are often reported by gamblers as triggers increasing the urge to gamble.
    SSRI’s also reduce impulsivity as lower levels of serotonin have been found in individuals with impaired impulse control, including pathological gamblers.
  36. 36ADDICTION Drug Therapy for Gambling Addiction → SSRIs Kim et al (2002)conducted a 12 week double blind placebo controlled trial, where they gave either naltrexone or a placebo to 45 pathological gamblers. Naltrexone targets the ‘D2’ dopamine pathway in the brain, which is associated with rewards. They found that naltrexone was effective in reducing the frequency and intensity go gambling urges, as well as the behaviour itself. Naltrexone also appeared more effective in gamblers with sever urges to gamble rather than those tho describes their urges to gamble as moderate
  37. 37ADDICTION Antabuse Aversion therapyADDICTION
    Antabuse is a type of aversion therapy for intervention with alcohol addiction. Antabuse is an emetic drug, which causes vomiting if alcohol is drunk.
    Antabuse (UCS) → Vomiting (UCR)
    Alcohol (NS) + Antabuse (UCS) → Vomiting (UCR)
    Alcohol (CS) →Vomiting (CR)
  38. 38ADDICTION Aversion therapy for gamblingThe patient is asked to keep a behavioural diary – a baseline to measure whether change is occurring during the course of treatment.
    A small, battery-powered electrical device is placed on the patient’s wrist.
    The patient is asked to preselect a level of shock that is uncomfortable, but not too painful.
    This shock is then briefly and repeatedly paired with stimuli (such as pictures of a betting shop, casino chips, online poker images, etc.) that the patient has chosen for their association with their problem gambling.
    The duration and intensity of the shock are carefully planned by the therapist to ensure that the patient experiences a discomfort level that is aversive and that the conditioned effect occurs.
    The discomfort from the electric shock becomes associated with the gambling behaviour and the patient reports a loss of desire to gamble and stops engaging in the behaviour.
  39. 39ADDICTION Aversion therapy has also been used to treat smoking addictionThe unconditioned stimulus used by researchers includes rapid smoking or deeply inhaling whilst smoking to induce nausea.
    The unpleasant nauseating feeling then becomes associated with the smoking behaviour, resulting in a reduced desire to smoke.
  40. 40ADDICTION Reducing Addiction: Covert SensitisationCovert sensitisation assumes that the behaviour was learned and can therefore be unlearned using the principles of CC.
    it eliminates the unwanted behaviour by creating an association between the behaviour and an unpleasant stimulus or consequence. Once the association is firmly established, engaging in the behaviour is no longer appealing for the individual. however, the unpleasant stimulus is only imagined by the individual.
    Relaxation Techniques
    The patient is taught to relax, using techniques such as breathing exercises. This is to encourage a calm state, removing agitation and anxiety to enable concentration.
    Verbal Aversion Therapy: Imagining Bad Consequences
    Unlike overt aversion therapy, no drug is ingested or electric shock delivered to create unpleasant feelings. Instead, the unpleasant feelings, that might occur from the addictive behaviour are imagined.
  41. 41ADDICTION Research support for covert sensitisation effective in treating addiction to alcohol → Ashem and Donner (1968)40% of the patients receiving covert sensitisation for alcohol addiction were still abstinent 6 months after treatment, whereas none of the control group remained alcohol free in that time.
    covert sensitisation to be more effective compared to aversion therapy → McConaghy et al. (1983) Found covert sensitisation to be more effective over a 12 month period, with 79% of patients, compared to 50% of aversion therapy patients, reporting control over, or not indulging in gambling, in a long-term follow-up study between 2-9 years after treatment. This suggests that the treatment has long-term effectiveness.
  42. 42ADDICTION CBTCBT assists patients to identify irrational/ maladaptive thoughts and alter them, replacing them with more rational and adaptive ways of thinking.
    As behaviour is seen as being generated by thinking, the most logical and effective way of changing maladaptive behaviour is to change the maladaptive thinking underlying it.
    It is assumed that addictions are the result of faulty thinking, maladaptive thoughts and cognitive biases.
    This includes identifying and correcting cognitive biases. this would be by Empirical disputing (accurate), logical disputing (sense) and pragmatic disputing (helpful)
    Homework is vital in testing irrational beliefs against reality and putting new rational beliefs into practice.
  43. 43ADDICTION Skills Acquisition and Real Life Application of CBT- Relaxation skills: Some addicts may respond to stress and anxiety by using addictive substances or activities. Relaxation skills (e.g. breathing exercises) are taught to provide a physiological method to calm oneself without drink or drugs at a point where they would normally be in danger of engaging in addictive behaviour.
    - Assertiveness training: In situations where the addict may feel pressure to conform and engage in the addictive behaviour, this training encourages the use of non-verbal communication to say no with authority.
    - Problem solving skills: because addicts often relapse when confronted with everyday problems, they are taught strategies focused on solving problems and asking for help.
    Relapse Prevention Training: This involves learning to identify situations in which relapse may be likely to occur and events that might trigger
  44. 44ADDICTION Theories of Behaviour Change - The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)The Theory of Planned Behaviour focuses on the underlying cognitions of addictive behaviour.
    believes the key to changing behaviour lies in the individual’s intention to change their unhealthy behaviour.
    INTENTION is based on:
    BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDE: Personal factors – attitude towards the behaviour i.e. its desirability, which is based on the perceived outcomes of the behaviour and to which they are deemed (+) or (-)
    SUBJECTIVE NORMS: Social factors – The subjective awareness of the social norms related to the behaviour i.e. beliefs that we believe others e.g. friends, family, society, to hold in terms of what is appropriate behaviour (the ‘injunctive norm’) and perceptions of what others are actually doing (the ‘descriptive norm’) – are other engaging in the behaviour?
    PERCEIVED BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL: the extent to which the individual believes they will be able to perform the beh (self-efficacy), e.g. giving up the addiction. Those with higher perceived behavioural control will try harder to control their behaviour and for longer.
  45. 45ADDICTION Godin et al. (2002)Goldin et al. examined the extent to which the TPB could explain smoking intentions and behaviours in adults intending to give up smoking.
    Procedure: Data collected using questionnaires and at home using trained interviewers.
    Participants were surveyed at the start of the study and again 6 months later.
    Findings: found three elements of TBP (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control) helped to explain intentions, whereas perceived behavioural control was the most important predictor of ultimate behaviour change.
    Conclusions: ∴ intentions would not appear to be the best predictor of eventual behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is a better predictor of behavioural change.
    Real life applications: Prevention programmes should help smokers to focus on willpower required to give up smoking and emphasise the effort needed to change their behaviour.
  46. 46ADDICTION Theories of Behaviour Change: Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model of Behaviour Changean explanations for the process of changing from unhealthy behaviours, the gradual nature of such change
    He believed that change occurred through a subtle & often complex progression
    1. Pre-contemplation: unaware that the behaviour is unhealthy and have no intention to change, may only seek help due to pressure of another
    2. Contemplation: start to show awareness of the problem, but have no intention of changing due to the amount of effort to give it up
    3. Preparation: the action is in form of planning and preparation (planning causes greater chance of succeeding
    4. Action: the plan is put into action this is the first time the person actually makes a change in their behaviour. Individuals have successfully altered their problem behaviour 1 day & 6 months. Relapse can occur.
    5. Maintenance: free from addictive behaviour 6+ months, consolidate from previous stage to prevent relapse
    6. Termination: no longer tempted, confident to maintain this, relapse cannot occur
    Other features include self-efficiency, supportive relationships and reinforcement management
  47. 47ADDICTION Theories of Behaviour Change: Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model of Behaviour Change Haslam & Draper (2000)women further along the cycle of change were more convinced about the dangers of smoking during pregnancy. Women in the first stage of change were most resistant to engaging in positive health behaviour during pregnancy, whereas pregnant women further along the cycle of change were more convinced about the health risks of smoking during pregnancy.
  48. 48ADDICTION Theories of Behaviour Change: Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model of Behaviour Change Baumann et al. (2015) → DOESN’T SUPPORTrandomly allocated problem drinkers (i.e. people not intending to change) to either an experimental group, who received an intervention tailored to their motivational stage, or a control group, who received minimal intervention only.
    They found no significant difference in beneficial effects between the staged intervention group & the control group ∴ the model may be overstated
  49. 49ISSUES AND DEBATES Alpha bias and Beta BiasAlpha bias: exaggerated differences
    Beta Bias: ignore and minimises differences
  50. 50ISSUES AND DEBATES Gender BiasMales and females may be treated differently and representation being based in stereotypes than real differences → distorted view of what behaviours may be typical
    - caused when male samples is generalised to women (MIlgram, Asch, Zimbardo)
    - male behaviour as standard → if the behaviour of women differs from men the it may be seen as a deviation from the norm
    - Biological differences emphasis → studies use male samples and these are generalised to women
  51. 51ISSUES AND DEBATES Alpha bias in gender biasdevalued/seen as inferior
    e.g. Freud's research into the psychodynamic approach, in his theory he viewed felinity as failed masculinity, he exaggerated the difference between men and women.
    Has led to some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation ‘feminine qualities’.
    Has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain ‘male’ qualities such as aggression and individualism as desirable, adaptive and universal.
    (-) Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of similarity within genders, thus this ignores the many ways women differ from each other.
    (-) Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
  52. 52ISSUES AND DEBATES Beta Bias in gender biasthis occurs when the differences between men and women are minimised. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.
    e.g. research into the fight or flight response, researchers used only male animals to test on because on female the hormone variation would have been too difficult
    (+) Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, for example, education and employment.
    (-) Draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women.
    (-) Is considered as an egalitarian approach but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.
  53. 53ISSUES AND DEBATES Androcentrismtheories and studies that are on men, often neglect or exclusion of women
    e.g. Frued’s theories: attempted to explain women’s felinity as a variant of failed masculinity die to supposed ‘penis envy’. they make up for their sexual inferiority by focusing on their vanity
    Asch’s study uses an entirely male sample and suggested it would be the same for men and women
  54. 54ISSUES AND DEBATES Evaluation of Gender in psychology- an examples of gender bias is the biological approach → bio differences are responsible for pycholigcal differences e.g. testosterone ∴ aggression and oxytocin ∴ nurturing behaviour. highly reductionist and oversimplification
    - beta bias shown in obedience research e.g. Milgram
    - gender bias in stress research, ‘flight or fight’ response the research on male (animal and human) bc females hormones fluctuated was less reliable to study. However, recently found ‘tend and befriend’ that women adopt in stress
    - the consequences of gender bias → unfair treatment in opportunities, women in employment and lack acceptance of emotional expression in men
  55. 55ISSUES AND DEBATES Culture biasthe majority of research that has been conducted in psychology has been conducted in western institutions and such can be considered biased. this is usually because the sample used for reference will be drawn from a western culture, yet the findings are applied to everyone
  56. 56ISSUES AND DEBATES Culture bias → Universalityit can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture. However, this also means that it needs to include real differences.
  57. 57ISSUES AND DEBATES Culture bias →cultural relativismthe belief that it is essential to consider the cultural context earn looking at behaviour. it cannot be judged properly unless you look at the context in which it originates and how there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, just differences
    e.g. psychopathology with deviation from social norms, this definition considers the context in which the social norm is relative to one culture but not another
  58. 58ISSUES AND DEBATES Culture bias → evaluationbias in research methods, Smiths and Bond (1998) found 66% of studies were American, 32% were European and 2% were the rest of the world. Sears (1986) reported the 82% of research studies were undergraduates, 51% were psychology students. Studies based on middle class, academic, young western adults, often male
  59. 59ISSUES AND DEBATES Culture bias → Alpha bias and Beta BiasAlpha bias: theories that assume that there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups e.g. a common distinction is individualistic and collectivist culture
    Beta Bias: theories that ignore and minimise differences resulting in universal conclusions
  60. 60ISSUES AND DEBATES Free willthe idea that we can play an active role and make conscious choices about how we behave. individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined
    For humanistic psychologists such as Maslow and Rogers freedom is not only possible but also necessary if we are to become fully functional human beings. Both see self-actualisation as a unique human need and form of motivation setting us apart from all other species. There is thus a line to be drawn between the natural and the social sciences.
  61. 61ISSUES AND DEBATES DeterminismFree will is an illusion. out behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. behaviour is therefore predictable
    external example: influences of parents when rewarding behaviour (For example, Bandura (1961) showed that children become aggressive through observation and imitation of their violent parents.)
    internal forces: hormones (For example Bowlby (1969) states a child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e. monotropy)
  62. 62ISSUES AND DEBATES Ethnocentrismthe assumption that one culture/ethnic groups behaviour is the ‘norm’ and if others groups differ form this then their behaviour is ‘abnormal’
    Rack (1984) claims that African-Caribbeans in Britain are sometimes diagnosed as ‘mentally ill’ on the basis of behaviour which is perfectly normal in their subculture, and this is due to the ignorance of African-Caribbean subculture on the part of white psychiatrists.
  63. 63ISSUES AND DEBATES Soft determinismsuggest that behaviour is determines by the environmental and biological make-up but only to a certain extent. it suggest that some behaviour are more constrained than others that there is an element of free will in all behaviour
  64. 64ISSUES AND DEBATES Biological determinismthis includes any kind of biological influence on the body. this type of determinism is therefore most relevant to the biological approach
    - Genetic
    - Physiology of the brain
    - Biochemistry
  65. 65ISSUES AND DEBATES Environmental determinismour behaviour is determined by environmental and previous experience
    - learning approach
    - social learning theory
  66. 66ISSUES AND DEBATES Psychic determinismthe role of the unconscious on conscious on conscious thought and hoe that affects behaviour
    linked freud, every action we take has a cause and that this cause often had its origins on the unconscious mind
    as the case os rom the unconscious mind the individual would often be unable to why they had behaved in a particular way
    it can be expressed by Freudian slips
  67. 67ISSUES AND DEBATES Scientific determinism (scientific emphasis on causal explanations)the use of methods form the natural sciences to find casual mechanisms for behaviour and thought
    as psychology is considered to a be a science ∴ scientific method is usually used, the use of empirical methods (experiments) to establish a cause and effect (IV and DV)
    This relates to free will and determinism because a determinist argument must be able to show that the behaviour had been caused by something that is not within the individual
  68. 68ISSUES AND DEBATES Free will and determinism → evaluation- Genetic determinism →it is doubtful that 100% genetic determinism will ever be found for any behaviour (twin studies shown the role genes → Groothest et al (2005), if there wasn’t then there would be a similar concordance rate between MZ and DZ
    - free will is an illusion → practically impossible to quantify and measure. skinner argued our choices are influenced by our previous reinforcement experiences. Libet er al (1993) found motor regions in the brain become active before a person register conscious awareness of a decision i.e. decision to move a finger was actually a pre-determined actions of the brain ∴ all responses are biologically determined and that free will is an illusion.
    - determinants explanations means that behaviour is more predictable and can generate hypothesis providing better understanding
    - hard determinism can cause implications and the treatment of mental disorders
  69. 69ISSUES AND DEBATES Nature (nature and nurture debate)an individuals innate qualities, behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors
  70. 70ISSUES AND DEBATES Nurture (nature and nurture debate)personal experiences (i.e. empiricism or behaviourism), behaviour is the product of environmental influences
    behaviourism and social learning theory (leaning approach)
  71. 71ISSUES AND DEBATES Nature and Nurture The relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviourHeredity refers to the genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation of another
    Environment is any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic (this may range from pre-natal influences in the womb to cultural and historical influences in society)
    The heritability coefficient us used to assess heredity, measuring a characteristic that has a genetic basis
  72. 72ISSUES AND DEBATES Nature and NurtureInteractionist approach (e.g. the diathesis stress model)
    suggests you can be born with a genetic vulnerability, however it will only be triggered from a stressor in the environment e.g. OCD
    can explain the difference of MZ twins
  73. 73ISSUES AND DEBATES Nature and Nurture debate → evaluation- the debate has moved on to an interactionist position (both nature and nurture play a role); the diathesis stress model
    - also, research on epigenetic are much less separate that thought; Weaver et al, measured mother rat grooming and licking pups in 1st week, ∴ that nurture can affect nature and how the environmental factors changed aspects of their DNA
    - Neuroplasticity has shown nature can be affected by nurture → Maguire et al (2000), how their nature responded and adapted due to nurture
    - difficult to separate the relative contributions of nature and nurture, twin studies and concordance rates
  74. 74ISSUES AND DEBATES Reductionismis an approach that breaks complex phenomena (i.e. human behaviour) down into more simple components
    those who take a reductionist position believe that the best way to understand behaviour is to look closely at the make up our systems, and then use the simplest explanations to understand how they work
  75. 75ISSUES AND DEBATES Holismwhen a behaviour is perceived as a whole integrated experience, rather than the individual features and or/ relations between them
    - beliefs looking at a person at a reductionist level is inadequate
    - says that we can’t predict how an individual will behave based on a single component
    - Humanistic approach, Roger doesn’t agree on looking at just the childhood but the whole life course
  76. 76ISSUES AND DEBATES Levels of explanations (reductionist approach)- Lowest level considers physiological (bio) explanations - beh. explained by neurochemicals, genes and brain structures
    - Middle level considers psychological explanations - cognitive and behavioural
    - Highest level considers psychological explanations - explained in terms of the influence of social groups
  77. 77ISSUES AND DEBATES Types of reductionism - BIOLOGICALusing biological systems (genetics etc). it is as reductionist as psychology goes
    (+) more precise and simple explanation ∴ be treated more easily and effectively
    (+) has led to biological therapies such as drugs, SSRIs
    (-) reducing mental illness down to the biological level ignores context and function → too simplistic ∴ viewed incomplete
    e.g. the bio approach to explain and treating OCD, bio approach to explaining GID, the body’s response to stress, genetic venerability to addiction
  78. 78ISSUES AND DEBATES Types of reductionism - ENVIRONMENTALTypes of reductionism - ENVIRONMENTAL
    Environmental (stimulus-response, S-R) reductionism which assumes that all behaviour can be reduced to a simple building blocks of S-R associations (CC) and complex behaviours are from a series of S-R chains
    e.g. Learning theory of attachment, the behavioural approach to explaining phobias and their treatment, learning theory of gambling and smoking behaviour
  79. 79ISSUES AND DEBATES Reductionism and Holism → The Interactionist perspectivebelieves that the several levels of reductionism are necessary to explain behaviour as they combine and interact, ranging from the more reductionist to holistic
    all the explanations are revenant, although it is hard to identify the most powerful explanation but this depend from situation to situation
    e.g. the diathesis stress model
  80. 80ISSUES AND DEBATES The Ideographic approachpsychologists who focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature
    uses qualitative methods (e.g. case studies, interviews, self report)
    the psychodynamic approach - Freud used case studies and each person psychological disorder derived from their unique childhood experiences
    Humanistic approach
  81. 81ISSUES AND DEBATES The Nomothetic approachpsychologist are concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people (considers the group)
    uses quantitive methods (statistic techniques → experiments, correlations)
    examples of the Nomothetic approach: bio approach, the same treatment is used for all patients, the behaviourist approach, Pavlov and skinner used animals to establish the laws of behaviour, the cognitive approach Atkinson and Shiffrin develop the general law of memory from the Multi-store model
  82. 82ISSUES AND DEBATES Nomothetic and Ideographic → evaluation- nomothetic approach is considered scientific, experimental methods with controlled methods also allows the ability to predict behaviour. Also controlled methods allows psychologists to replicate research to examine reliability
    - as nomothetic approach is scientific, it is useful for the practical application of treatment, the bio approach and treating OCD using SSRIs → using nomothetic approach has allowed treat multiple people
    - Ideographic approach using case studies is a powerful tool for evaluating psychological theories e.g. Clive Wearing. These studies allow further understanding and research support
    - Idiographic approach is the inability to produce general predictions about behaviour. some argue this is a severe limitation, to develop treatment, also it would be too time consuming to produce personal therapies for every patient e.g. Freud’s little albert study was 150 pages of quotes and his interpretations ∴ the idiographic approach is not suitable for developing psychological treatments
  83. 83ISSUES AND DEBATES Ethical implications of research and theoriesthe impact that psychological research, may have in terms of the rights of other people, especially participants
    this include social levels, influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded
    this includes: This can include reinforcing damaging stereotypes in terms of culture/race/gender/sexuality etc.
    The findings may also concern members of the public (e.g. research into effect of daycare on IQ score may concern parents who have no choice but to put their children in daycare)
    Self-fulfilling prophecies- some people may read research and this could change their own behaviour (e.g. gender differences in coping with stress)
  84. 84ISSUES AND DEBATES Social SensitivitySieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research
  85. 85ISSUES AND DEBATES Sieber and Stanley’s four considerations for socially sensitive researchThe Research questions: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.
    The methodology used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant's and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?
    The Insititional context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
    Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy?
  86. 86ISSUES AND DEBATES Ethical issues in psychology research- Deception
    - Informed consent
    - Protection from harm
    - Confidentiality
    - Right to withdraw
    - Privacy/observational research

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A level psychology Flashcards on case studies: issues and debates, addiction, bio , created by rose prince on 21/05/2019.
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rose prince · May 2019
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May 25, 2019
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