Flashcards
relationships
Cards in this deck (80)
- 1-what is meant by sexual selection? -what is meant by human reproductive behavior?-evolutionary explanation of partner preferences.
characteristics become more and more pronounced over time.
-human reproduction behaviour=behaviour that relate to opportunities to reproduce, increasing survival chance of genes - 2what is anisogamy?-difference between male and female sex cells
-male gametes=small,highly mobile, created continuously since puberty, do not require much energy to create
-female gametes=large, static, produced at intervals for a limited number of years, a lot of energy
-consquence of anisogamy=many fertile men, not as many women
-gives way to two different mating strategies, meaning there are two different types of sexual selection:inter and intra - 3what is inter sexual selection?-female (quality over quantity)
-females make greater investment=time, commitment/other resources before, during and after birth
-consequence for choosing wrong partner for females is greater than males=have to choose genetically fit partner=pass on feature considered attractive="sexy sons hypothesis"
-runaway process=produce sons with attractive quality producing daughters with preference for the quality - 4what is intra sexual selection-males (quantity over quality)
-competition between to mate with females, winner passes on characteristics contributing to victory
-this process gives rise to dimorphism=obvious difference between males and females
-has behavioural/psychological consequences=males acquire fertile females and protect them from competing males=benefit from being aggressive/thinking in a certain way
-anisogomy suggests it is best to mate with as many women as possible=less energy to make sperm
-behavioural consequence for finding fertile mates is distinct preferences for youth and fertility - 5evaluation points for sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour-research support for preferences related to anisogamy
-research support for inter-sexual selection
-ignores social and cultural influences
-support from hip to waist ratio - 6what research support is there for preferences related to anisogamy?-Buss=10,000 adults, asked questions relating to age and variety of attributes that evolutionary theory predicts is important in partner preference
-female responses placed greater value on resource related characteristics e.g good financial prospects, ambition and industriousness
-males value reproductive capacity=good looks, chastity, preferred younger mates - 7research support for inter-sexual selection-clark+Hatfield=female choosyness is reality of heterosexual relationships
-male+female students asked other students to sleep with them=75% of males agreed, no females did - 8how do sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour theories ignore social and cultural influences?-partner preferences have been influenced by rapid changing social norms. these develop much faster than evolutionary timescales imply and have instead come about due to cultural factors e.g availability of contraception
-women no longer need men for financial security
-Bereczkei=womens mate preferences no longer relate to resources
-chang et al=compared partner preferences in china for 25 yrs=some changed some same=corresponds to hige social change - 9what support is there for waist to hip ratio-Singh studied hip to waist ratio (indicator of fertility)
-body type doesn't matter, ratio does
-need a ratio of 0.7
-combo is honest signal of fertility and not being pregnant - 10what is self disclosure?-major concept within social penetration theory of how relationships develop
-gradual process of revealing inner self to someone (deepest thoughts and feelings)
-involves reciprocal info exchange between partners
-when one self discloses they display trust, the other must then reveal important info to further interaction
- - 11what are the two elements of self disclosure?-breadth and depth, as both increase romantic partners become more committed to each other
-onion metaphor=disclose a lot of superficial info at the beginning, breadth is difficult to achieve because too much info may ruin the relationship
-as relationship develops, SD deepens, revealing more high risk and intimate info - 12what, in terms of self disclose, is important for a relationship to develop?-Reis and Shaver=reciprocity
-once something is disclosed, partner should respond in a rewarding, understanding, empathetic way and also disclose some of their info - 13evaluation point from self disclosure-support for research studies
-real life application
-cultural differences - 14what support is there for research studies?-sprecher and Hendrick studied heterosexual dating couples, found strong correlation between satisfaction and SD
-Laurenceau et al=participants kept diary=SD linked to high levels of intimacy - 15what is the real life application of SD?-improve communication in relationships
-can use SD skillfully and deliberately
-Hass and Stafford=57% gay men and women in study said open and honest self disclosure was the main way they deepened and maintained relationship - 16what are the cultural differences in relation to SD?-Tang et al=reviewed research literature regarding sexual SD
-USA (individualistic) self disclose more sexual thoughts and feelings than China (collectivist) - 17why is physical attractiveness important?-Shackelford and Larsen=symmetrical faces most attractive=honest signal of genetic fitness
-neotenous=(baby face)=trigger protective and caring instincts
-important factor in maintaining relationships as well - 18what is the halo effect?-physical attractiveness stereotype= "what is beautiful is good"
-Dion et al= physical attaractive people rated kind, strong sociable, successul
-creates self fulfilling prophecy - 19what is the matching hypothesis?-attracted to people who match us in attractiveness
-choice of partner is a compromise , desire the most attractive, but out of fear of rejection, stay in out own league - 20evaluation points for physical attractiveness-research to support halo effect
-individual differences
-research support for matching hypothesis
-research contradicting matching hypothesis - 21what research support is there for the halo effect?-Palmer and Peterson=attractive people=more politically knowledgeable
-persisted even when the knowledgeable people had no particular expertise
-harmful in real life situations=vote for most attractive candidate - 22what are the individual differences of physical attractiveness?-Towhey=asked males and females to rate how much they like a individual based on photo and little biographical info
-participants also completed questionnaires=MACHO scale=measure sexist attitudes and behaviours
-high score=influenced by physical attractiveness when making judgement - 23what research support is there for the matching hypothesis? what research support is there to contradict?-Feingold=meta analysis of 17 studies=significant correlation in rating of attractiveness between romantic partners
-contradict=Taylor et al=studied activity log of popular online dating sites, online daters sought out more attractive partners, didn't consider own attractiveness - 24what is filter theory?-Kerchoff and Davis suggests that a series of factors limit the range of romantic potentials, have field of availables, filters narrow down to field of desirables
-social demographic=proximity,class,education,ethnic group,religion. outcome of filter is homogamy, more likely to form a relationship with those socially and culturally similar
-similarity in attitudes=important in partners who had been together less than 18 months, promotes self disclosure, similarity causes attraction as the law of attraction
-complementarity=having traits the other lacks, important in long term relationships - 25evaluation points for filter theory-support from research evidence
-failure to replicate
-direction of cause and effect
-lack of temporal validity - 26what research support is there for filter theory?-theory assumes that key factors in relationships change over time, agreeable to most peoples relationships
-has face validity
support from Winch=found evidence of similarities of personality, interests and attitudes in early stage - 27why does filter theory have a lack of reliability?-Levinger=many studies fail to replicate originla findings that form the basis of filter theory
-put this down to social changes over time and difficulties defining depth of relationship interms of length
K+D had 18 month cut off point to distinguish short term and long term
-assumed those been together longest more comminted - 28what is the direction of cause and effect in filter theory?-filter theroy suggests people are attracted because of similarities, evidence this is not the correct direction
-Anderson et al=longitudinal study=cohabiting partners became more similar in emotional response over time=emotional convergence
-Davis and Rusbult=attitude allignment effect in longer term relationships - 29why does filter theory lack temporal validity?-online dating in recent years changed traditional approach to dating
-reduced importance of social demographic variables
-lacks generalisability - 30what is social exchange theory?-Thibault and Kelley=behaviour in relationships reflects economic assumptions of exchange
-we try to maximise gains+minimise losses (minimax priniciple), judge satisfaction with relationship in terms of profit yields, defined as rewards minus the costs
-rewards include beneficial things
-relationships have opportunity costs=investment of time and energy in current relationship means using resources that you cannot invest anywhere else - 31what are the two ways to measure the profit of marriage?-comparison level
-comparison level for alternatives - 32what does comparison level mean in terms of social exchange theory?-the amount of rewards you believe u SHOULD get
-develops from experiences of previous relationships, feed expectations of current ones
-also influenced by social norms
-consider relationship worth pursuing if CL is high-link to self esteem=lower SE=lower expectations - 33what is comparison level for alternatives in terms of social learning theory? (CLalt)-provides wider context for current relationship
-we may believe we can get more rewards for lower costs in other relationships/being alone/can do better
Duck=Clalt depends on current state of relationship=if costs outweigh rewards, alternatives become attractive - 34according to social exchange theory, what are the stages of relationship development?-sampling stage=explore rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships
-bargaining stage=beginning of relationship, begin to exchange rewards and costs
-commitment stage=sources of costs and rewards become predictable, relationship stabalizes as rewards increase and costs lesson
-institutionalised stage=partners settled because norms (costs and relationships) are firmly set - 35evaluation points for social exchange theory-inappropriate assumptions underlying SET
-direction of cause and effect
-SET ignores equaity
-artifical research - 36what are the inappropriate assumption underlying SET?-Clark and Mills=theory fails to distinguish between two types of relationships
-exchange relationships e.g work and colleagues involve social exchange predicted by SET
-communal relationships however e.g romantic are marked by giving and receiving with no acknowledgement to who is ahead or behind
-SET claims relationship partners return rewards for rewards, costs for costs, these reciprocal activities are monitored, if we felt this exchange monitoring was happening at the start of a promising relationship we would question what kind of commitment our partner wanted - 37what is the problem of direction of cause and effect in social exchange theory?-SET argues that dissatisfaction sets in whenwe suspect coats outweigh rewards/alternative is more attractive
-Argyle=we dont measure costs and rewards in relationships/consider altnerativess until after disatisfied with the relationship
-research supports dissatisfaction comes first=Miller=people who rated themselves in highly commited relationships, spent less time looking at attractive people=was also a good predictor of relationship continuing two months later - 38how does SET ignore equity?-lots of research to support importance of equity
- 39why does having artificial research in SET pose as a limitation?-major support studies=artificial conditions e.g=two strangers working together on game play scenario=rewards and costs distributed
-two partners know nothing about eachother, the relationship depends on tasks performed together
-more realistic studies have been less supportive of SET, and noting that snapshot studies cannot account for properties that emerge from relationship over time i.e trust - 40what is equity theory?-economic theory of how relationships develop=needs to be fairness
-Walster=profit (rewards-cost) most important needs to be the same=no overbenifiting/under
-over feel=guilt, discomfort,shame
-under=resentment,hostility,humiliation - 41according to equity theory, what is important in a relationship in terms of fairness?-not the size/amount of rewards and costs that matter, rather the ratio of the two
-satisfaction of relationships marked by negotiation to ensure equity - 42what are the consequences of inequity?-the greater percieved inequity, the greater dissatisfaction, ET predicts strong correllations between the two
-changes in percieved equity=changes in levels of percieved equity dissatisfise most
-dealing with inequity="put on"partner will work harder to make relationship equitable, as long as they believe it is possible and relationship is salvageable. the more unfair the relationship feels, the harder they will work to restore equity. however, another possible outcome is a cognitive rather than behavioural one=will revise perceptions of rewards and costs so relationship feels more equitable - 43evaluation points for equity theory-supporting research evidence
-cultural influences
-individual differnces
-contradictory research evidence - 44what supporting research evidence is there fore equity theory?-Utne=survey of 118 recently married couples, measured equity with two self report scales. couples aged 16-45 yrs had been together for two years before marriage
-found couples who considered relationship as equitable were more satisfied than those seeing themselves as over/underbenefitting - 45what are the cultural influences in equity theory?-ET=assumes need for equity is universal feature of romantic relationships across cultures=fundamental feature of human behaviour
-Aumer-Ryan et al=cultural differences in link between equity and satisfaction. compared couples in collectivist culture and individualistic culture.
-couples from individualistic culture considered relationships were equitable, in collectavist culture most satisfied when overbenifitting - 46what are the individual differences?-Huseman et al=some less sensitive to equity than others. some parterns are "benevolents"=contribute more than they get out some are "entitled" deserve to over benefit
- 47what contridictory research is there for equity theory?--satisfying relationships should become equitable over time apparently
-Berg and McQuinn found equity did not increase in longitudinal study of dating couples
-equity theory does not distinguish between relationships which ended and those relationships which ended and those continued, other variables being significantly more important=self disclosure - 48what is Rusbults investment model is about?-theory of romantic relationship=commitment depends on three factors=investment size, satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives
-developed from social exchange theory=satisfaction level+comparison with alternatives - 49what is investment size about in rusbults investment model?-influences commitment=not just about CL and Clalt. invst=most important
-investment=extent+importance or resources associated with relationships=tangible and intangible=anything lost if relationship broke down
-intrinsic investment=directly
-extrinsic=did not previously exist before relationship
-the bigger the investment, the less likely are to leave - 50what is satisfaction and comparison with alternatives in relation to Rusbults investment model?-based on comparison level
-satisfying relationships judged by comparison levels=profit (rewards-cost)
-partners generally satisfied is they get more out than they expected to based on previous experiences and social norms
-altneratives=satisfaction else where - 51what are the relationship maintanence mechanisms-Accommodation – acting in a way that promotes relationships, rather than keeping a tally of costs and rewards.
-Willingness to sacrifice – putting partner's interests first.
-Forgiveness – willingness to forgive partner's mistakes, both minor and serous ones.
-Positive illusions – being unrealistically positive about partner's qualities.
-Ridiculing alternatives – minimising the advantages of potential alternatives and viewing them in a negative light. - 52evaluation points for rusbults investment model-supporting research evidence
-explains abusive relationships
-oversimplifies investment
-methodological strengths - 53what is the supporting research evidence for rusbults investment model?-meta-analysis 52 studies which included 11,000 participants from five countries
-satisfaction, comparison level for alternatives and investment size all predicted relationship commitment
-most commited relationship=stable, lasted longer
-outcomes true for both men and women and across cultures and and for homo and hetero - 54how does Rusbults investment model explain abusive relationships?-why do people not leave clearly unsatisfying, abusive relationship
-Rusbult and Martz=victims=those likely to return to an abusive partner made the most investments and had the fewest attractive alternatives - 55how does rusbults investment model oversimplify investment?-Goodfriend+Agnew=more to investment than resources you have already put in a relationship because in new relationship, partners make few investments
-extend model by including investment romantic partners make few - 56what are the methodology strengths in rusbults investment model?-rely on self report=questionnaires and interviews
-appropriate because of it is not objective reality of measures e.g investment size that matters
-it is your belief that you have made a big investment in current relationship/belief that there is no attractive alternatives - 57what is ducks phase model? and what are the phases?-an explanation of stages people go through when relationship isn't working, if one person is dissatisfied, there are 4 phases in the process
-intra-psychic, dyadic, social, grave-dressing phase - 58explain each stage of Duck's phase model-I.P=indicating determination of something needing to change, cognitive process, weigh up pros and cons and alternatives privatly/with a friend
-D=between partners, confrontations, relationship discussed/dissatisfactions aired=lack of equity, anxiety=two outomes=repair/break
-S=break up made public, catalysed by friends involved
-G.D=aftermath, spin story to make themselves look positive/displace blame, concluding to "get a new life" - 59evaluation points for Duck's phase model-incomplete model
-methodological issues
-useful real-life application
-cultural bias - 60why is Duck's phase model and incomplete model?-Rollie+Duck=modified to add 5th stage=after grave dressing=ressurection phase
-ex-partners turn attention to future relationships using experiences gained from recently ended ones
-movement from one stage to the other is not inevitable=possible to return to earlier stages (not a linear movement) - 61what are the methodological issues with Duck's phase model?-research relating to Duck's model is reterospective
-participants give experiences of breakdown process after relationship has ended=what is recalled my not be accurate=distorted/forgotten
-impossible to study phase when problems first appear=hestitant to study this phase as intervention could make things worse=socially sensitive
-therefore ignores the early part of process - 62what is the real life application of Duck's phase model?-help to indentify and understand stages of relationship breakdown and also suggests various ways of reversing it
-useful for recognising different repair strategies are more effective at particular points in the breakdown than others
-e.g intra-psychic=encouraged to focus on good qualities, Dydic=communication skills good for future use
-use in relationship counselling - 63why is Duck's phase model culturally biased?-Moghaddam et al=individualistic cultures generally voluntary and frequently come to end e.g divorce/seperation
-collectavist cultures=obligatory , harder to end=involve whole family
-harder understand of relationship breakdown between cultures - 64in terms of virtual relationships, what does self disclosure mean?-important in face to face interactions. in computer mediated communications there are two view points
-reduced cues theory (don't self disclose)+hyper personal model (greater self disclosure) - 65what is the reduced cues theory about in virtual relationships?-Sproull+Keiser=CMC relationships less effective than FtF=lack cues we normally depend on in FtF interactions e.g appearance
-leads to de-individualization=encourages dis inhibition in relating to others
-VR therefore more blunt/aggressive communications, not able to self disclose - 66what is the hyper-personal model in virtual relationships?-Walther=VR more personal and self disclosure than FtF
-relationships develop quicker because of earlier self disclosure+more intense and intimate
-can also end quicker=high excitement levels isnt matched by trust levels (boom and bust phenomenon)
-sender has more time to manipulate online image=selective self-presentation
-anonymoty also important=train effect - 67what is the absence of gating in virtual relationships about?-gate=obsticals in the way of forming relationships
-gate=unattrativeness,stamma,anxiety
-relationships allowed to be formed deeper because of the absence of these cues - 68what are the evaluation points for virtual relationships?-lack of research support for reduced cues theory
-research support for hyperpersonal model
-types of CMC
-support for absence of gating - 69why is there a lack of research support for reduced cues theory?-theory is wrong to suggest that social cues as entirely missing, they are just different not absent
-people in online interactions use other cues e.g style/timing of message,acrostics,emoticons - 70what research support is there for the hyperpersonal model?-hyperpersonal model predicts that people are motivated to self disclose in CMC in hyperhonest/hyperdishonest way
-questions asked in online discussions are direct,probing and intimate, different to small talk in FtF - 71what are the types of CMC?-extent and depth of social disclosure dependent on type of CMC used
-social networking site=people interact with others they have a offline relationships with
-people disclose more on facebook status than on forums
-online dating=self disclose reduced because both communicators anticpate furtue meetings FtF in the future (offline) - 72what support is there for the absence of gating?-Mckenna+Bragh=CMC used by lonely and socially awkward people
-such people able to express true self more than in FtF situation
-romantic relationships formed online, 70% survived more than two years - 73what is a parasocial relationship? what are levels of parasocial relationships?-Relationships similar to ‘normal’ relationships. They are one sided, unreciprocated relationship, usually with a celebrity, on which the ‘fan’ expends a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time.
-a three stop description of one sided relationships in terms of increasing strength from entertainment-social to intense- personal to borderline pathlogical - 74what are the levels of parasocial relationships?-McCutcheon et al dveloped celebrity atiitude scale=used in large scale survey by John Maltby et al=identified three levels of behaviours/attitudes linked to extreme forms of celebrity worship
-entertainment social=sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction. Friends with more than a passing interest enjoy discussing stories
-intense personal=Greater personal involvement, obsessive thoughts, ‘soul mate’.
-borderline pathalogical=uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. - 75what is the absorption-addiction model? explain the components-form parasocial relationships=deficiencies people have in their own lives=weak sense of identity/lack of fulfilment in their relationships=escape reality
-may be poorly adjusted psychologically
-linked to levels (explanations)
-absorption=seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship, become preoccupied and identify with them
-addiction=needs to sustain commitment, leads to extreme behaviours/delusional thinking - 76what is the attachment theory explanation-parasocial relationships can form as result of attachment difficulties in early childhood
-Bowlby=emotional troubles later on/ainsworth=two unhealthy attachment types
-insecure resistent types more likely to form parasocial relationships=need to have unfulfilled needs met, unaccompained by rejection, breakups and disappointment of real life relationships
-insecure avoidant types=prefer to avoid pain/rejection of relationship=parasocial or normal - 77evaluation points for parasocial relationships-support for absorption-addiction model
-problems with attachment theory+absorbtion-addiction model
-methodological issues - 78what support is there for absorption-addiction model?-Matlby et al=celebrity worship and body image in males and females 14-16
-Females=intense-personal parasocial relationship with female celebrity whose body shape they admired=had a poor body image=maybe a precursor to anorexia nervosa
-entertainment=extravert, intense=neurotic, pathalogical=psychotic
-poor cognitive functioning - 79what is the problem with attachment theory? what is the problem with absorption-addiction model-McCutcheon et al=attachment types+celeb related attitudes in 299 particapants=participants with insecure attachment more likely to form PSR than participants with secure attachment
-criticied for being better description of PSR than explanation e.g capable of describing characteristics of people who are most absorbed by and addicted to celebrity. does not explain how they appear unlike attachment theory - 80—
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- Flashcards on relationships, created by haniah shujahat on 17/02/2024.
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- Created by haniah shujahat · Mar 9, 2019
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