Flashcards
AS Psychology Memory
Cards in this deck (59)
- 1What is the Multi-store Model?Atkinson and Shiffrin, made up of sensory memory, short term and long term memory.
- 2What is the Sensory Register?- coded with all types of sensory information;
- vast capacity;
- duration of milliseconds. - 3What is Short-term Memory?If attention is paid, information may be transferred to the….
- coded acoustically, although Brandimote (1992) argued visual coding could also occur;
- capacity for 7+/-2 items;
- duration of 15-30 seconds.
- “maintenance rehearsal” to stay in STM. - 4What is Long-term Memory?Sufficient rehearsal to LTM…increased rehearsal directly linked to strength of LTM…has semantic encoding; unlimited capacity; unlimited duration (potentially lifetime)
Information must undergo process of retrieval to return memory information to STM - 5What is the Working Memory Model?Developed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974 The working memory model is composed of 4 main components and can account for multi-tasking of multi-sensory activities: has the Central Executive, the Phonological Loop, the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad and the Episodic Buffer.
- 6What is the Central Executive?Directs attention to particular tasks
Allocates brain’s resources from 3 “slave systems” to complete tasks
Can process any type of sensory data from slave systems or semantic data from LTM
Limited capacity for storage - cannot do many tasks at once. - 7What is the Phonological Loop?Deals with auditory information, preserves its order, Limited capacity, 2 components:
phonological store - holds words you hear like inner ear
articulatory loop - silently repeats words heard or seen (form of maintenance rehearsal) - 8What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad?Used to plan spatial tasks - preserves visual information (objects’ colour and form) and their spatial information (physical distance from other objects and self)
Divided into 2 components
Visual cache (stores visual information)
Inner scribe (stores spatial information - 9What is the Episodic Buffer?Integrates information from the central executive, that has come from phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad
keeps a sense of time sequencing
Greater storage capacity
Transfers to LTM - 10What are the 3 types of Long-term Memory?> Semantic
> Episodic
> Procedural - 11What is Episodic Memory?Knowing THAT.
Comes from word “episode” - an event or group of events occurring as a larger sequence, 3 components: Details of event, Context may also be recalled (what happened before/after), Emotion associated with the event, e.g. first day at school - 12What is Procedural Memory?Knowing HOW (implicit)
e.g. how to make toast, NOT memory of rules of how to act (that is semantic) but the actions themselves, Typically acquired through repetition and practice, Important that procedural memories are automatic so we can focus attention on other tasks while performing everyday skills - 13What is Semantic Memory?Knowing THAT
Memory of facts and shared knowledge
Rules of what to do/how to behave
Generally begin as episodic as knowledge acquired by personal experience
e.g. knowing Paris is the capital of France - 14What was Jacob's research into the capacity of STM?Jacobs (1887) - assessed digit span (see top of p44 of kerboodle text book) and found:
9.3 items for digits
7.3 for letters
(numbers possibly easier to recall as there are only 9, whereas 26 letters to recall) - 15What was Miller's research into the capacity of STM?Miller (1956) - magic number 7+/- 2 digits (supports Jacobs 1887)
procedure described at top of p45
also found 5 words recalled as well as 5 letters - as information is CHUNKED together (more meaningful) so more can be remembered. - 16What was Peterson and Peterson's research into the duration of STM?Peterson and Peterson - 24 students, 8 trials
consonant syllable e.g. THX, counted backwards from 3 digit number to prevent rehearsal for retention interval of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. 3 seconds = 90% accurate, 9 seconds = 20% accurate, 18 seconds = 2% accurate, Shows STM is less than 18 seconds if verbal rehearsal prevented - 17What did Baddeley's research into encoding of STM and LTM show?Baddeley (1966a and 1966b) use lists to test effects of acoustic vs. semantic similarity on recall of STM and LTM, Ppts had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM, Difficulty remembering semantically similar words in LTM but not STM, Suggests STM acoustically encoded, LTM semantically encoded.
- 18What did Bharick's research into the duration of LTM show?Bahrick et al. (1975), 400 ppts age 17 - 70
photo recognition test - 50 photos, year book, free recall of names, photo recognition against a list of names, 15 years after graduation = 90% accurate facial recognition
After 48 years = 70% photo recognition
Free recall 60% accurate after 15 years, 30% after 48 years - 19What is retrieval failure?Retrieval failure is where information is available but cannot be recalled because of the absence of appropriate cues.
- 20What are the various types of cues?• Types of cues that have been studied by psychologists include environmental context, emotional state and organisation.
- 21How can cues improve recall?Cues improve recall if :
recall is in same context as learning
the person is in same bodily state as when material was learned
the organisation gives a structure which provides triggers, eg categories. - 22What is the encoding specificity principle?Tulving and Thompson (1973) proposed memory most effective if information present at ENCODING also available at time of RETRIEVAL
Encoding specificity principle further states:
A cue does not have to be exactly right
Closer clue to original item = more useful - 23What did Tulving and Pearlstone show?Demonstrated value of retrieval cues: Learned 48 words in 12 categories, Each word presented as category + word, e.g. fruit - apple, 2 different recall conditions - free recall or cued recall (categories names). Free recall = 40% words recalled, Cued recall = 60% words recalled. Cues are encoded at time of learning and have a meaningful link.
- 24What are the 3 stages of forming an eyewitness account?Encoding, retention and retrieval
- 25What is encoding?The witness encodes into their LTM details of the event and the people, encoding may partial and distorted, as most crimes happen very quickly and a person may not have a full view of the event. Also often accompanied by violence.
- 26What is retention?Witness remembers the information from the event for a period of time. However during this period of retention, some details may be lost or modified, most information is lost in the first few minutes after the event, and the memory may be affected by tasks during the retention period.
- 27What is retrieval?Retrieves the memory from LTM, cues and nature of the questions may affect recall accuracy.
- 28What was Loftus and Palmer's first experiment into leading questions?45 ppts, 5 independent groups, 7 films of traffic accidents, each given a question, 'How fast were cars when they____?', word could be 1 of 5, hit, smashed, bumped, collided, contacted, those with 'smashed' estimated higher speed.
- 29What was Loftus and Palmer's 2nd Experiment?Participants were again shown film and asked question, 3 groups, 'smashed', 'hit' and a control. 1 week later returned and asked whether they saw broken glass. More said yes in the smashed group (16 rather than 7 or 6) showing that the actual memory was altered.
- 30How can the conformity effect alter eyewitness testimony?Co-witnesses may reach consensus view, Gabbert et al, ppts watched film in pairs, discussed before individual recall, 71% mistakenly recalled items that were not there.
- 31How can repeat interviewing affect eyewitness testimony?LaRooy et al, each time an EW interviewed possibility comments from interviewer are incorporated into memory, also through leading questions, memory can be altered.
- 32How can anxiety affect eyewitness testimony?Stress and anxiety have negative affects on memory and performance, though not automatic skills, reduces performance on complex cognitive tasks.
- 33What did Johnson and Scott's Weapon Focus study show?Weapon distracts notice from other features. Ppts in a waiting room, heard argument, man ran through carrying pen (low anxiety) or a knife (high anxiety), ppts then asked to identify man from photos, pen = 49%, knife = 33%, supports weapon focus.
- 34How did Loftus' research support Weapon Focus?anxiety draws eyes to main focus of the crime - the weapon, EW eye movements tracked, presence of weapon caused attention to be drawn to weapon away from face.
- 35How can anxiety have a positive effect?high anxiety leads to more accurate/enduring memories, Christianson and Hubinette found 58 real EW to bank robberies showed enhanced recall, 4 - 15 months after event, all EW had 75% accuracy, most anxious = most accurate.
- 36What is the Yerkes-Dodson effect (Resolving the contradiction)?
- 37What is Proactive Interference?• Proactive interference is where old learning prevents recall of more recent information.
- 38What is Retroactive interference?• Retroactive interference is where new learning prevents recall of previously learned information.
- 39What was some research into Retroactive Interference?Muller and Pilzecker (1900). Ppts given list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes, retention interval then list recall. Performance worse if ppts given intervening task (shown 3 landscape paintings and asked to describe them)
Later task interfered with what had been previously learned - 40What was some research into Proactive Interference?Underwood (1957). He analysed findings from a number of studies, concluded that when ppts have to learn a series of word list, words learnt later on not recalled as well. If ppts memorised 10 or more lists, after 24 hours only recalled 20% of words, If only learned 1 list, recall 24 hours later was over 70%
- 41What study analysed the effect of the similarity of test materials?McGeoch and McDonals (1931). ppts given 10 adjectives (list A), list A learned, 10 minute interval when list B learned, then recall. Synonyms = 12% accuracy. Nonsense syllables = 26% accuracy. Numbers = 37% accuracy. Shows interference strongest the more similar items are, only interference can explain such effects
- 42What did a real-world study show?Baddeley and Hitch (1977) Rugby players recalling names of teams played against. Some players played in all games, Others missed some games. Length of season was same for all players, BUT no. of intervening games was different. B+H found players who played more games forgot more, demonstrating effect of interference in everyday life.
- 43Laboratory research is artificial:Often uses nonsense words or syllables, doesn't relate to everyday, lacks ecological validity. However, interference has been seen in everyday situations.
- 44Interference only explains some instances:Only occurs rarely in everyday life, the two memories have to be similar for it to occur, therefore this only explains some instances of forgetting.
- 45Interference is not permanent:Study found that availability/accessibility of memories increased at a different, supports as interference means that memories are only temporarily inaccessible rather than gone.
- 46Real life application to advertising:Supports as found that recall and recognition of an advert was impaired when exposed to 2 similar adverts within a week.
- 47Some people are less affected by interference than others:Study found that individuals with greater working memory span were less susceptible to proactive interference
- 48What is the Cognitive Interview?Waddington and Bull (2007) the CI seeks to encourage accurate and thorough recall. Based on 2 main principles of memory, and has 4 key aspects.
- 49Memories are context dependent:Cues present at the time of storage will help recall. Needs consistency between the actual incident and the recalled one.
- 50Information organisation:Info in the memory can be accessed in lots of different ways. So many different routes are used to help with recall. No standardised questions and are not time limited. The interviewer remains as quiet, No leading questions
- 511. Report EverythingEvery single detail of an event is recalled.
Even when things may appear irrelevant.
The interviewee is encouraged to speak slowly and take their time. - 522. Mental reinstatement of original contextThe witness is encouraged to recreate the scene in their minds.
The interviewer may help by asking the to talk about just before and after the incident how they felt etc. - 533. Changing the orderThe witness is encouraged to change the timeline e.g. reversing the order of happenings.
This helps to ensure that the witness is not skipping details. - 544. Changing the perspectiveThe witness is encouraged to change the timeline e.g. reversing the order of happenings.
This helps to ensure that the witness is not skipping details. - 55CI research: Kohnken et al (1999)-meta analysis of 53 studies
- found on average a 34% increase in amount of correct info generated in CI
- This suggests that CI is effective in increasing accuracy + amount of detail in EWT
- But most were university students, this undermines supporting evidence for CI. - 56CI research: Milne and Bull (2002)- found that when thay used a combination of ‘report everything’ and ‘mental reinstatement’, participants recall was significantly higher
- but still a laboratory experiment - 57CI research: Stein and Memon (2006)-compared the cognitive interview to a normal interviewing techniques in Brazil
-CI increased the amount of correct info obtained and the richness of details. - 58Negative evaluation points:Interviewer Skills - poorly trained interviewers can affect the accuracy of recall. Time Consuming - Kebbell and Wagstaff, police often want to use structured interviews to save time. Erroneous Recall - Eysenck and Keane, CI’s give more recall but also more errors in recall, the longer left after incident.
- 59Positive evaluation points:Ease Of Use
The CI can be used with very little training. However the quality of training given does have an effect on the success of the CI.
Greater Recall
A lot of research shows that witnesses recall more in a CI than in a more structured interview.
Information
- Description
- As level Psychology Flashcards on AS Psychology Memory, created by Phoebe Hamilton on 31/12/2015.
- Created by
- Phoebe Hamilton
- Views
- 22
- Rating