Flashcards

Learning and Performance

Tom Baker Sport AS - Level English 118 cards

Cards in this deck (118)

1Define learningThis is the permanent or semi-permanent change in behaviour brought about as a result of experience, practise or teaching
2Define maturationThis is the natural progression of physical development with age. We are not able to perform a skill until we have physical, anatomical and psychological maturity to do so
3Define motivationThe internal states and external pressures that direct an individual towards a goal or a course of action
4What are the two types of motivation?Intrinsic
Extrinsic
5What is intrinsic motivation?This is the most enduring form of motivation and it is the drive that comes from within - personal satisfaction, a sense of mastery, a sense of accomplishment. It leads to a greater sense of self-worth. It should be supported by extrinsic motivation but not replaced by it.
6What is extrinsic motivation?The drive to perform to win or gain tangible or intangible rewards e.g. money or cheers from the crowd
7Which type of motivation is considered to be 'better'?Intrinsic
8Why is intrinsic motivation better than extrinsic?Extrinsic rewards can lose their power - if you are a multimillionaire sports performer, one more prize pay packet will make little difference to you
If the focus is solely on external rewards then the enjoyment of the activity may be lost and intrinsic satisfaction will not be developed or maintained
The extrinsic reward may not be valued by the performer and motivation is lost if there is no intrinsic motivation present
9Why is extrinsic motivation not as good as intrinsic?Although external rewards may play a pert in motivating learners, they should always be linked to to feelings of accomplishment, success and increased self-worth so that intrinsic motivation is developed
10Give an example of a conditioning theoryOperant conditioning
11Give an example of a cognitive theorySchema theory
12Give an example of a social learning theoryObservational learning
13Give three examples of conditioning theoriesContiguity
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
14What is operant conditioning?This is manipulating behaviour to shape the correct response through the use of reinforcement
15What type of theory is operant conditioning?An S-R theory (stimulus-response).
16What does the operant conditioning theory state?That we are conditioned to give a particular response to a particular stimulus; that we have learned to act in a certain way given a certain stimulus. The likelihood of the response is dependent upon the strength of the bond between the stimulus and the response
17How do you get a performer to produce a desired behaviour?To rely on trial and error - where the objective is explained to the learner and he or she is allowed to experiment with different ways of achieving the objective
The teacher may show a demonstration of a method of a skill and then ask pupils to go and try it for them selves e.g. a jump shot in basketball
18How is the bond between stimulus and response created?Through using a process of reinforcement
19What is reinforcement?This is a process by which a connection (bond) between a stimulus and a response is established and developed
20What are the three types of reinforcement?Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
21What is positive reinforcement?This is a process by which the performer associates the correct response to a stimulus, strengthening the S-R bond
22How is positive reinforcement achieved?By rewarding the correct response. Rewards are generally extrinsic and may tangible or intangible.
Given that we are all motivated to receive rewards, we experience a drive to repeat the action to gain the reward.
Performing an action that leads to success will also give us an 'internal' reward - feeling of satisfaction, success and improved self-worth. This also motivates us to repeat the action that led to that feeling.
23What is negative reinforcement?This is the process by which an aversive or unpleasant stimulus is withdrawn when the correct response is given. The S-R bond is then strengthened.
24What is punishment?This is giving a stimulus to prevent a response occurring, breaking the S-R bond
25Give another aspect of operant conditioningShaping
26What is shaping?This is where an action that is closer to the desired action is rewarded by positive reinforcement but an action that is further from the desired action receives negative reinforcement. The learner gradually moves closer to the desired action.
27What are the disadvantages of operant conditioning?The learner is not required to understand why they should do something and therefore a lack of understanding may be de-motivating
Trial and error learning may lead to the wrong technique adopted by the learner if it leads to initial success. This may require 'unlearning' and will waste time
The learner may not know how to react when the stimulus s slightly different from those already experienced. Due to their lack of understanding the learner may not know which response to use
This form of learning implies that for every skill or performance situation, an S-R bond has been created. Given the vast number of S-R links this would require, this seems an unlikely scenario
Beginners don't react well to negative reinforcement and the use of punishment hardly seems appropriate in a skill learning situation! Shaping requires a learner to act as an automaton, reacting without understand.
28How did cognitive theories of learning develop?As a result of the criticisms and perceived weaknesses in conditioning learning theories
29What do cognitive theories of learning do?They stress the importance of what the brain does with the information (stimuli) that it receives
They reject the concept that we merely respond to a stimulus in an unthinking way
30What do cognitive theories of learning require?They require the learner to understand where they are starting from and their objective - where they need to be and what they are trying to achieve
31What are the three cognitive theories of learning?Adam's closed loop theory
Insight learning
Schema theory
32What does Adam's closed loop theory state?That movement is initiated by a memory trace. The memory trace of the motor programme is stored in the LTM and is developed as a result of experience and external feedback
Once initiated, the movements are controlled by the perceptual trace. Skill learning requires the development of this perceptual trace through using a wide range of feedback, both internal (kinaesthetic) and external (auditory, visual etc...)
The perceptual trace acts as an ongoing comparison for the performer to compare and evaluate the correctness of their movements - compare what you should be doing to what you are actually doing
If there is a mismatch between what you are supposed to be doing (memory trace) and what you are actually doing (perceptual trace) the performer attempt to eliminate the error by changing the movement
Learning therefore becomes a process of eliminating errors
33What is the memory trace?This chooses the initial motor programme to achieve the goal, then taken over by the perceptual trace
34What is the perceptual trace?This uses feedback to refine the movement and eliminate errors
35Give an advantage of Adam's closed loop theoryIt is also used to explain how we adapt a movement to achieve a goal. For example, running to catch a ball
36Why did Schmidt develop the Schema theory?This was developed as a result of his criticism of earlier theories such as Adam's closed loop theory
37What were Schmidt's criticisms of Adam's closed loop theory?To carry a separate memory trace for every single movement or technique that we perform would place too great a burden on our memory storage capacity (this is also a criticism of the S-R theory
Schmidt considered that every movement we make is unique in some way, due to a slight change in the environment, such as our opponents actions, or our own objectives
For example, an overhead clear in badminton is never performed in exactly the same way but will be dependent upon our position on the court, where we wish the shuttle to go, the size of our opponent, the movement of our opponent and tactical considerations
Neither closed loop theory or S-R theory give an explanation of how the performer manages the problems of storage capacity and unique responses to unique situations
38What does the schema theory state?That we develop and store in memory a set of schema which can then be adapted or refined to deal with a new situation.
We develop two types of schema - recall schema and recognition schema
39Define the term schemaThis is a set of relationships between joint action and muscle contractions that can be adapted to produce a new technique or skill
40Define the term recall schemaThis is stored information about how to produce a movement, made up of the initial conditions and the response specification
41Define the term recognition schemaInformation that allows a performer to evaluate their movement - made up of sensory consequences (knowledge of performance) and response outcomes (knowledge of result)
42Explain recall schemaIt is made up of two elements - initial conditions and response (movement) specification
43What are initial conditions?These are the knowledge we have of the environment, body position, limb position, muscle tension etc... before we start
44What is response (movement) specification?This is the motor programme (limb action, forces, speed, timing, etc...) and the movement objective (what we are trying to achieve)
45Explain recognition schemaThis also consists of two elements - sensory consequences and movement outcome.
Recognition schema is used during and after a movement
46What are sensory consequences?These are the internal (kinaesthetic) feedback we receive as we undertake the movement
47What is a response (movement) outcome?This is the result of the movement compared to the objective
48What is an insight theory of learning?This is where the learner has a sudden leap of understanding and experiences a rapid improvement in performance
49Give an example of the insight theory of learningWhen learning to ride a bike - you struggle for a while to get the combination of balance, steering and forward motion in the right combinations, then all of a sudden it 'clicks' and off you go.
50Explain how the Insight theory is connected to the Gestalt theoryAlthough a movement can be broken down into compartment parts, the relationships between the parts, the timing and transmission between one component and another is an integral part of the whole movement.
Learners need to be able to experience and understand the skill as a whole before it can be correctly performed.
It is also the case that this form of learning will occur at different time scales for different learners and requires coaches and teachers to provide a range of learning situations to allow performers to gain an insight into what is required
51What is a social learning theory?This is learning by copying others because we wish to be socially accepted
52Give an example of social learning theoryYoung performers will often copy the attitudes and behaviours that are displayed by elite performers or that are demanded or displayed by the coach or captain.
It is not uncommon to see young players, particularly at school, change their sport behaviour when they change from one sport to another. Actions that are acceptable in one sport are not displayed or are punished in another so the players behaviour changes accordingly.
53What is observational learning ?This is learning a skill by copying or modelling ourselves on another person.
54What factors need to be considered for a demonstration to be effective?The attributes and characteristics of the model
The physical and psychological readiness of the learner
The motivation of the learner to attend to the model and to practise
55What are the four stages of the observational learning theory?Attention
Retention
(receiving and processing information - perception)
Motor reproduction
Motivation
skill performance (psychomotor)
56Explain attentionThe performer must attend to the demonstration
57Explain retentionThe visual model must be retained otherwise performance is not possible. It helps if the learner can create mental picture of the skill by using imagery (this can be enhanced by using mental rehearsal)
Having achieved attention and retention we move from the perceptual to the psychomotor side of the process.
58What is motor reproduction?When the learner has reached a stage of sufficient physical development so that the can actually perform the skill.
59What is motivation?The learner must have this to perform the skill.
External rewards may help in the early stages, but intrinsic motivation is far better.
60What must a coach or teacher ensure in order for the observational learning process to be successful?He or she must ensure that the characteristics of the model and the situation are appropriate.
61What is the appropriateness of the demonstration or model determined by?Relevancy to the learner- particularly to the existing skill level of the learner. To use an elite performer to demonstrate to a beginner may set too high a standard and the learner may feel that it is unattainable.
The accuracy of the demonstration- if the learner views a flawed model they may acquire a faulty technique.
The status of the role model- if the role model has a high status in the eyes of the learner, they are more likely to attend and be able to mimic the demonstration.
Point of observation- can the learner see the relevant and key points (the cues) e.g. ask learner to observe - not too much verbal guidance.
62Define stages of learningThe stages a learner goes through from a beginner to mastering a skill
63What are the three stages of earning?Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
64Describe the cognitive stage (I)The learner is still trying to understand the demands of the task
They are putting together a mental model of what is required (pre practice stage)
The coach must ensure they acquire the mental image through the use of demonstrations, guidance and the use of key words/cues
65Describe the cognitive stage (II)The learner needs to give all their attention to the performance of the skill (e.g. watching the ball when dribbling)
The learner makes many gross errors
The learner is not able to pay attention to outside stimuli (feedback given must be terminal). Feedback must be clear, simple and limited.
66Sum up the cognitive stage of learningThis stage is primarily a stage of gaining information about the skill model and organising the cognitive process to produce a movement as close to the desired movement as possible.
Little or no practice occurs except towards the end of the stage.
67Describe the associative stage (I)This is normally longer than the cognitive and the performer gradually becomes more successful and makes fewer gross errors.
Normally a stage of rapid improvement and the skill actions become smoother, more accurate better timed and more efficient.
68Describe the cognitive stage (II)The learner begins to be able to make use of some intrinsic feedback and begins to compare the performance to the mental model.
They begin to use more complex cues and pay attention to concurrent feedback given during the performance.
69Describe the cognitive stage (III)The learner performs and practices the skill under a wide variety of situations
It is a period of consolidation of correct or nearly correct movement responses.
70Describe the autonomous stage (I)Skill improvement continues but at a less rapid rate
The performance of the skill displays very high levels of smoothness, efficiency, accuracy and is performed without stress.
71Describe the autonomous stage (II)The skill has become habitual (the performer pays even less conscious attention to the performance)
The are increasingly less affected by outside distractions
The performer can pay attention to increasingly complex, tactical and situational considerations
72Describe the autonomous stage (III)The performer can analyse their own performance and adjust their own actions.
Progress results from attention to fine details of technique and performers are involved and responsible for their own skill improvement through self evaluation, mental practice and self motivation.
73Define feedbackThis is the information a performer receives during and after the performance of a movement.
74What are the different forms of feedback?Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Positive
Negative
Terminal
Concurrent
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of performance
75Describe intrinsic feedbackThis is feedback that the performer receives from their proprioceptors (state and speed of muscle contraction).
It is also known as kinaesthetic feedback and is linked to knowledge of performance
76Describe extrinsic feedbackFeedback that is received from outside through vision and hearing and often given by a coach/teacher/team mates etc.
It is linked to knowledge of results.
77Describe positive feedbackFeedback received when the performer or performance was successful. This may be in the form of practice and strengthens likelihood of the action being repeated.
78Describe negative feedbackFeedback received after an unsuccessful performance. Can be in either an internal or external form.
79Describe terminal feedbackfeedback given after a performance has been completed.
This form of feedback may be delayed and is often external
80Describe concurrent feedbackFeedback being received during performance. Most of internal feedback from the proprioceptors, but can also be from a coach as the performer is undertaking the performance
81Describe knowledge of resultsThis involves a performer seeing the results of their action or receiving that information from another person (normally the coach or teacher)
This form of feedback is external and usually terminal
It is vital to learning - little progress will be made without the learner receiving
82Describe knowledge of performanceThis form of feedback involves receiving information about the movement pattern rather than the outcome.
It can be internal or provided by the coach.
The external provision of this form of feedback involves giving information about small errors in technique that the perfumer amy not be able to detect for himself.
83Describe knowledge of performance (II)High definition, slow movement cameras and movement analysis software can be used.
This is highly dependent upon the leaner and stage of learning that they have achieved.
This can be seen on series of continua (learn fig 9.12 p 114)
84How much feedback is needed form a coach?As the performer becomes more able to analyse their own performance the form of feedback changes.
Too much negative feedback will be demotivating, too much positive will leave the performer without clear picture of where he went wrong.
85What does a performance curve or graph show?The progression that a performer or learner is making in the development of a new skill
They do not show that a change in performance is due to learning
86What does a positive performance curve show?That progress is quite slow at the beginning but then rapidly improves.
87What does a negative performance curve show?That the performer improves rapidly at the beginning, ha much early success but improvement then slows down and may eventually stop.
88What does a linear performance curve show?When performance keeps on improving at a steady rate
89Why are linear performance curves not completely accurate?As at some stage, the performance is either perfect or the learner has reached their limit.
90What does an s shaped performance curve show?When learners experience periods of improvements and progression and then times when no improvement is made for a while.
Then all of a sudden, they experience another period of improvement.
91What is a learning plateau?This is a period of time during which there is no change in performance - a levelling off. (also known as performance plateau)
92Why do learning plateaus occur?The learner is physically not ready to make further improvement or go to the next stage
The learner lacks the ability to develop or modify current skills
Earlier faulty skill learning means that the learner is unable to master the next stage
93Why do learning plateaus occur? (II)Fatigue- the learner is simply too tired to make any further progression
Moving from a simple to a complex skill may take more time to assimilate the mental model and cues involved in the more complex skill
The next stage is too high or complex for the learner
Boredom - due to lack of variety or length of practise
94Why do learning plateaus occur?(III)Lack of motivation - may be due to boredom or that goals are being set too high leading to fatigue
Poor coaching or teaching
95Describe how to overcome a learning plateauEnsure that the learner is physically ready for the next step
Reset the goal to an achievable level
Avoid fatigue and boredom by breaking the practice session into shorter or distributed time periods.
Beak the skill down int component parts if possible
96Describe how to overcome a learning plateau (II)Allow time for mental rehearsal
Try to generate more motivation and enthusiasm by providing external rewards some opposition
Ensure the performer is receiving the correct feedback
Make practise enjoyable ; add variety by changing team roles
97What is transfer of learning?The application of previous experience to present learning. The effect on the performance of practising one skill or learning another.
98Describe a positive transfer of learningWhere the effect of a previously learned or practised skill has a beneficial effect upon another.
99Give an example of a positive transfer of learning occurringUsing an overarm throwing technique to help learn a tennis serve, or to throw a javelin.
100What must there be in order for positive transfer to occur?Similarity in the structure of the skill components.
101How can positive transfer be enhancedIf the similar elements of the skills are shown to learners
If the context or situation is similar (although this is not critical if the situation is clear and not confusing to the learner)
102Describe a negative transfer of learningThis is where the effect of the previously learned or practised skill is damaging to the learning or performance of the new skill.
These transfers don't usually last very long
103Give an example of a negative transfer of learning occurringWhen a tennis player spends the winter playing badminton and then finds that their tennis techniques are not as effective.
104When can short term negative transfer occur?When a skill is transferred into a new situation e.g. when going from an outdoor indoor version of the game.
A change of tactic from the ones that players are habitually used to may also cause short term negative transfer - e.g. a change from man to man defence to zone defence in basketball. Players may exhibit moments of confusion until their cognitive processing has readjusted.
105When can negative transfer occur?If the practise situation doesn't demand the same response as the playing or competitive situation.
For example, only practising set moves or plays without defenders or just passive defenders, swimmings doing land drills
106What is zero transfer?This is where there is no effect on current performance or learning from previous learning.
107When does zero transfer occur?When there is little or no similarity between the tasks or skills, when the situations are dissimilar or when the cognitive and information processes are also different
108What is bilateral transfer?This is where there is a transfer from one limb to another - e.g. a player kicking a ball with their non-dominant foot by relating it to the more skilful performance of the dominant foot
109What is proactive transfer?This is when what the learner is practising has an effect on a later skill or performance.
Many teachers or coaches attempt to use proactive transfer when they set up skill improvement practices.
110What is retroactive transfer?This is the opposite of proactive and is said to occur when current learning or practise of a skill is affecting a skill that was learned in the past
111What does the term 'practise makes perfect' mean?That what you do in practise, how you construct and use practise time has a fundamental effect on the progress you make as a performer
112What are the most important variable involved with the effect of practise on learning?How practise time is structured - massed, distributed or variable
The form of guidance that is used - verbal, visual or mechanical
What teaching style should be used - command, reciprocal, guided discovery, problem solving etc...
How well the skill is presented to the learner - whole, part, progressive part, whole-part-whole
113What factors does a successful practise session take into consideration?The learner's current stage of learning
The learning situation
The task or skill to be learned
114Define guidanceThis is a method by which a teacher/coach transmits the information necessary to help a performer to develop a new skill
115What are the three forms of guidance?Visual
Verbal
Manual/Mechanical
116Describe visual guidanceThe teacher provides a range of visual images - demonstrations, pictures and video to allow the performer to see what the skill looks like (this helps to build a cognitive model of the skill).
It is often used with beginners
117Describe verbal guidanceThe teacher uses verbal descriptions, cue words or phrases to help the learner understand what is to be achieved.
It is often used in conjunction with visual guidance and is better for more advanced learners
118Describe manual/mechanical guidanceThe teacher physically moves the learners limbs through the movement to enable them to feel the correct action. The teacher may also help the learner produce the correct movement by physically restricting the movement.

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Description: AS - Level Sport (Skill Acquisition ) Flashcards on Learning and Performance , created by Tom Baker on 23/04/2016.
Created by: Tom Baker
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