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IB Psychology

D D Psychology International Baccalaureate English 169 cards

Cards in this deck (169)

  1. 1Outline/explain one principle of the BLOA."Animal research can provide insight into human behavior": Based initially on Darwin's work, it is the idea that humans and the other types of animal are different species now because of thousands of years of evolutionary adaptation to environmental demands. It is thus valid to make inferences about human behavior based on animal research research, because the mechanisms that underlie behavior are the core similarity we share with animals.
  2. 2Outline explain one principle of the BLOA."Patterns of behavior can be inherited because they are genetically based": According to Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution, our species adapted to the environment in order to survive, and adaptation manifested itself in different biological mechanisms, which became innate because it became a part of genetic make-up.
  3. 3Explain one study of localization of function of the brain. PART I.The hippocampus is a structure found inside each hemisphere of the brain that is thought to play a role in spatial memory and navigation.
    Aim: Navigational experience and the role played by the hippocampus in humans + whether the healthy brain can undergo structural changes in response to extensive navigational experience.
    In particular, based on past research, they expected taxi drivers to show significant structural differences in their hippocampi compared to non-taxi drivers.
  4. 4Explain one study of localization of function of the brain. PART II.Method: Natural experiment.
    IV: Amount of navigational experience in two groups: licensed London taxi drivers with a minimum of 18 months job experience and non-taxi drivers (control group).
    DV: Volume of the hippocampi, including anterior, body and posterior sections.
    Participants: 16 healthy, right-handed male London taxi drivers. The control matched for health, handedness and sex.
    Procedure: MRI brain scanning: VBM (voxel-based morphometry) measuring the structure and location of the brain parts and pixel counting, measuring the volume and size of the brain.
  5. 5Explain one study of localization of function of the brain. PART III.Results: VBM analysis: Taxi drivers had significantly increased grey matter volume in the right and left posterior hippocampus compared to controls.
    Pixel-counting: No significant difference in overall volume, but taxi drivers had significantly larger volume in the posterior campi compared to controls.
  6. 6Explain, using examples, the effects of neurotransmissions on human behavior. Neurotransmitter 1: Serotonin.Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is involved in sleep, arousal levels and emotions of a person. Serotonin is mainly found in the central nervous system.
    Kasamatsu and Hirai (1991):
    Aim: To see how sensory deprivation affects the brain.
    Participants: Group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72-hour pilgrimage.
    Procedure: The participants did not consume water or food, were exposed to cold weather and did not speak. After around 48 hours, they began having hallucinations, the researchers took their blood samples before they ascended the mountain and again immediately after they reported having hallucinations. It was found that the in their brains the serotonin levels had increases, which had activated the parts of the brain called the hypothalamus and the frontal cortex, which resulted in the hallucinations.
  7. 7Explain, using examples, the effects of neurotransmissions on human behavior. Neurotransmitter 2: Dopamine.Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in goal-directed behavior (motivation) such as pleasure-seeking and is released in the brain's reward system.
    Berridge and Kringelbach (2009):
    Aim: To investigate brain areas involved in subjective experience of pleasure, using fMRI scan.
    Results: The orbitofrontal cortex was active when people reported feeling pleasure.
    The researchers concluded that dopamine and the nucleus accumbens is perhaps rather involved in pleasure seeking. This could explain addictive behavior.
  8. 8Explain, using examples, functions of two hormones in human behavior. Hormone 1: Oxytocin.Oxytocin is a hormone that has the nickname "the trust hormone". It is secreted by the hypothalamus and released into the blood stream via the pituitary gland or into the brain and spinal cord where it binds to oxytocin receptors. The hormone has been linked to trust, and the higher levels of oxytocin the more trust a person has, according to research.
    Baumgartner et al. (2008):
    Aim: To investigate the role of oxytocin after breaches of trust in a trust game.
    Procedure: Participants divided into "investor" and "trustee" and had to decide if they wanted to keep a sum of money, or share it with the trustee, which would triple the worth of the money and the trustee might give back the money to the investor or keep it themselves. After fMRI scans were carried out on the 49 participants, they received either oxytocin or placebo through nasal spray.
    Results: In 50% of the games, their trust was broken, participants in the placebo group were likely to show less trust after feedback on betrayal.
  9. 9Explain, using examples, functions of two hormones in human behavior. Hormone 2: Melatonin.Melatonin is a hormone with a role in the cycle of sleep. It is secreted from the pineal gland at the base of the brain. Melatonin is secreted in the dark and helps us sleep. Researchers have suggested that the phenomenon of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) may be related to melatonin levels. SAD is a type of depression that occurs in winter.
    Avery et al. (2001):
    Randomly assigned 95 SAD patients to three groups:
    One to receive dawn stimulation, one to receive a more traditional bright-light therapy, one to receive a placebo of dim red light at dawn. Using a structured interview that results in depression-rating specific to this disorder, Avery et al. found that those who received traditional bright-light therapy or the placebo showed less improvement and more side-effects than the group who experienced dawn stimulation.
  10. 10Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLOA. Research method 1: Laboratory-based experiments.Laboratory-based experiments are used because they enable the researchers to manipulate the independent variable and consequently measure the dependent variable, and thus investigate something that is not naturally occurring in real life. The researchers make the use of an independent and dependent variable, and often control extraneous variables to a great extent.
  11. 11Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLOA. Research method 2: Correlational studies.Correlational studies are used when researchers want to investigate if two variables are connected to each other and when they want to investigate natural phenomena that cannot ethically be produced in a laboratory experiment. They use correlational studies by examining one variable and how this variable affects another (independent and dependent), but the researchers cannot manipulate the independent variable, only measure two variables and not establish any cause and effect due to there being no manipulation. Strengths: relatively simple and provide numerical representation of the relationship that can be easily understood and compared, and they allow the study of a number of variables that cannot be manipulated experimentally. Difficult to isolate variables. Bi-directional ambiguity.
  12. 12Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the BLOA. Ethical consideration 1: Informed consent.Informed consent is an ethical consideration all research studies must take into consideration, because not having the participants’ consent before conducting the research is unethical and often immoral.
    Oliver Sacks (2007):
  13. 13Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the BLOA. Ethical consideration 2: Protection from harm.Animals are often experimented on in laboratory experiments, where they should, at all times, aimed to be protected from harm, because of ethicality of psychological experiments. However, sometimes this may not be an option, because in order to investigate animals' brains, they need to be killed as they can not be placed under a brain scan. One study involving animal participants that were harmed in the laboratory experiment is Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972):
    The researchers placed rats into one of two environments to measure the effect of either enrichment or deprivation on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex. The enriched, stimulating environment was characterized by interesting toys to play with, while the deprived environment was characterized by no toys. After 30-60 days, the rats were killed. Post-mortem studies of their brains showed that those that had been in the stimulating environment had an increased thickness in the cortex. The frontal lobe, associated with thinking, planning and decision making, was heavier in the rats in the stimulating environment.
  14. 14Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes. Effect 1: Deprivation.Deprivation one effect of the environment, has shown to have negative effects on physiological processes, such as permanent intellectual impairment and smaller grey area in the brain. A lot of different studies have focused on the effects of deprivation on physiological processes because of the high applicability value it yields to humans.
  15. 15Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes. Effect 2: Brain plasticity.Brain plasticity is the concept that explains that our brain has the ability to adapt itself, according to the situation it is put in, i.e. environmental demands. It seems that the more a person performs a particular activity, the more neuronal connections are formed in the area of the brain responsible, and this creates a physical change in the brain.
    Maguire et al. (2000) concluded that there has probably been a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi as a result of intense development and the use of spatial memory skills, specifically those relating to learning and remembering routes through the city. Again, this is likely to be a strengthening of connections between neurons in a well-used part of the brain.
  16. 16Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior and evaluate two relevant studies.HM (Milner and Corkin, 1957-2008):
    HM had a bike injury when he was around the age of 7, and he soon began having epilepsies. They became so sever that he, at the age of 27, underwent a surgery to remove the medial temporal lobe in order to reduce the frequency of the epileptic seizures. After the operation he remembered his childhood very well. However, he could not recognize people, and the researchers concluded that he could not acquire new episodic knowledge, nor semantic knowledge. This suggests that the brain structures removed are important for long-term explicit memory.
  17. 17Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior. Brain imaging technology 1: MRI.MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging is a useful technology because it records the signals from the haemoglobin in the bloodstream. (However, a limitation is that it can only capture static images, and not capture the flows of the neurons in the brain).
    HM is a study in which they used a MRI scan (Corkin, 1997).
  18. 18Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior. Brain imaging technology 2: fMRI.Functional magnetic resonance imaging one of the more popular technologies used today, because it allows researchers to distinguish between the different brain regions and their involvement in different behaviors. However, a limitation is that it cannot directly measure the electrical neurological activities in the brain, and thus has to rely on blood flow, as well as oxygen uptake, as secondary indicators of neuronal activity). It can reveal ongoing change but up to researchers to deduce why the change is occurring.
  19. 19With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetics influence behavior?Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al. 1990): Identical twins raised apart were compared to monozygotic twins raised together. This is the most cross-cultural study to date and the mean age of the monozygotic twins raised apart was 41 years old. Each twin completed approximately 50 hours of testing and interviews. The concordance rates of intelligence from the study were that:
    same person tested twice 87%, identical twins reared together 86% and identical twins reared apart 76%. Researchers determined a heritability of 70%, other factors 30%.
  20. 20Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior.According to one principle of the BLOA “human behavior may be innate because it is genetically based”, which sets forth the belief that our behaviors are a result of behavior our ancestors had. Darwin proposed in his theory of evolution that only the strongest survive, the so-called “survival of the fittest” and thus, our behaviors may be a result of our ancestors’ behavior that they had to adapt in order to survive, and passed down these biological mechanisms to us through the process of evolution.
    Emotion of disgust: Fessler (2006) investigated nausea experienced by women in the first trimester.
  21. 21Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior. Ethical consideration 1: Confidentiality.Confidentiality should be protected, because else it could have negative effects for the participant, if others are aware of their intelligence levels. This can be ensured by coding information or fully anonymizing the sample. However, making everything anonymous can also limit the scientific value of the study by preventing follow up and further investigation.
  22. 22Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior. Ethical consideration 2: Stigmatization.Stigmatization can happen if people find out about a person's intelligence and ostracize them as a consequence of it, and thus they are given a label, a stigma, which they will have for all their lives because of participating in the genetic research.
  23. 23Outline/explain one principle at the CLOA."Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors." --> Bartlett et al. (1932).
    Human beings gain information from a variety of places, and these informations guide behaviors in the human.
  24. 24Outline/explain one principle at the CLOA."The mind can and should be studied scientifically." --> Loftus and Palmer (1974).
    The human mind can be viewed as a computer, and because computers are often studied scientifically, so should the human mind.
  25. 25Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.Damage to the hippocampus can negatively affect memory, and lead to memory loss and the disease amnesia.
  26. 26Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the CLOA. Research method 1: Case studies.Case studies are often considered a collection of different methods, in the form of triangulation. Strengths: Yield rich data, a full and detailed description of the individual, group or organization under investigation is gathered. Obtaining such information in depth can be costly, both in terms of monetary value and time. Researchers might develop a close bond with the participants, due to them being studied over an extensive period of time, and may result in subjective decisions about research design or the reporting of findings --> HM (Milner and Corkin 1957-2008).
  27. 27Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the CLOA. Research method 2: Laboratory-based experiments.Laboratory-based experiments are used because they enable the researchers to manipulate the independent variable and consequently measure the dependent variable, and thus investigate something that is not naturally occurring in real life. The researchers make the use of an independent and dependent variable, and often control extraneous variables to a great extent. Usually method with highest levels of reliability. Easily replicable. Artificial setting. Demand characteristics can be a problem as people in an artificial environment act differently from how they might normally act --> Loftus and Palmer (1974).
  28. 28Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the CLOA. Ethical consideration 1: Protection from psychological harm.Researchers must be able to ensure that participants are protected from harm if they participate in a study. In the Neisser and Harsch (1992) study on flashbulb memories, the 106 participants involved were forced to remember a tragic incident 2 years after it happened, due to the nature of the study, which could have been very problematic for them, causing psychological harm and perhaps stress. However, the research wouldn't have been able to be conducted in another manner, because they wanted to test the accuracy over time.
  29. 29Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the CLOA. Ethical consideration 2: Confidentiality.Confidentiality is an important ethical consideration to establish because the researchers need to ensure the participant's/participants remain confidential and that there personal information cannot be obtained by an outside resource. --> HM
  30. 30Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.Schema theory suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing. A cognitive schema can be defined as networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world.
    Strengths: High applicability value (heuristic value), because it enables understanding of how people categorize information, interpret stories, and make inferences, amongst others.
    Limitations: Not entirely clear how they are acquired in the first place and how they actually influence cognitive processes. Cohen (1993) has criticized schema theory, stating that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful. --> Bartlett et al. (1932), Soolin and Dooling (1974) and Wynn and Logie (1998).
  31. 31Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. WORKING MEMORY MODEL.The working memory model was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974, 1986) and opposed the multi-store model. They believe that the long-term and the short-term memory store were more complex than described by Atkinson and Shiffrin and that if the STM is occupied, Baddeley and Hitch wondered if you could perform visual and auditory tasks?
  32. 32Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. MULTI-STORE MODEL.The multi-store model was put forth by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and has been an influential model. According to it, there are three types of memory stores: sensory stores, short term stores (STS) and long-term stores (LTS). The three types differ in duration (how long information can be stored), capacity (how much information can be stored) and coding (in what form information can be stored). According to the theory, the sensory stores have unlimited capacity, but information in them decays rapidly and is soon lost. In order to for the memory to be transferred to the short-term store, the control process attention but be present. Only information that is attended to while it is in the sensory store is transferred to the STS, the next stage.
  33. 33Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process. CULTURAL FACTORS.Today we know that;
    Cognitive processes and abilities such as;
    Perception, Memory, Thinking and Problem solving. Intelligence are influenced by social and cultural factors. Cognitive scientists mean that the culture and society a child is born within provides important resources/clues for cognitive development. This does not contradict with that biological factors affect cognition.
    Conclusion: The cognitive ability to remember is universal, but not how we remember (Cole and Schribner and Roggoff and Waddel)
    What we remember (Bartlett).
  34. 34Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. Technology 1: MRI.MRI
    Corkin (1997) and Maguire (2000). Magnetic radiation causing protons in water in brain to move= detected
    Strengths:
    shows brain damage, such as tumors
    not considered invasive procedure
    fast
    Limitations:
    Correlation, not causation
    Can be dangerous for those with metal
  35. 35Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. Technology 2: fMRI.Similar to MRI, produces 3D images using magnetic fields and radio waves
    Strengths:
    Shows brain activity as it occurs, can help to show researchers which areas of the brain become active when a task is performed
    Useful for studying memory, in order to localize function better. Has been used to study flashbulb memories
    Flashbulb memories - what is? Longlasting memories in great detail. Described by researchers Brown & Kulik (1977) as memories typically of events which have emotional signficance.
    Research using fMRI: Sharot el al (2006)
    Aim was to explore the neural basis for flashbulb memories
    Method: 24 participans whom were eyewitnesses to 9/11 (either close to or midtown) were put in an fMRI scan and asked to retrieve their memories of the summer of September (used as a comparison to the latter scan) and memories of 9/11. Looked at arousal (emotional response) and vividness of memory, etc.
    Results show that for those whom were close to the event the activation of amygdala was greater, and there was no difference in activation in participants for summer.
  36. 36Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable. MEMORY.To what extent is memory reliable? CT.
    Methods and procedure
    A lot of scientific - quantitative evidence
    Also qualitative
    Lab - controlled
    Field - high ecological validity
    Participants: Children and adults
    Unethical issues - research on EWT, repressed memories could be stressful
    Some contradicting evidence:
    1) Research disprove
    2) Strong emotions could cause strong memories
    = Flashbulb memory
    Useful- applied
    Important and useful knowledge for the justice system
    Scientific proof are often hard to understand
    Unreliable but slow reforms in the justice systems
    But could a research create the same anxiety as in a real situation
    Anxiety in a lab impair the accuracy of EWT
    In real life even more anxiety involved - why are we still relying on them?
    Women more anxiety in a crime - less reliable?
    But…
    Some research shows that increased anxiety can actually improve memory
  37. 37To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? Lazarus Appraisal Theory (1975)Emphasized the role of “cognitive appraisals”
    Interaction=
    The cognitive factors (appraisal) can modulate stress responses (physiological)
    Cognitive appraisal = an evaluation of the situation determines the level of physiological arousal and the specific type of emotion to be experienced
    An emotion occurs in the following order:
    1) Cognitive experience
    2) Physiological change
    3) Action
    Two types of appraisal
    Primary appraisal: if a situation is personally relevant or not
    an approach or an avoidance response
    1) Relevance
    2) Congruence with goals or
    3) Accountability (credits or blame)
    Secondary appraisal: A decision of how to react to the situation;
    4) Problem solving, focus
    5) Emotion focused or
    6) Future oriented
    A summary of the six appraisal components leads to an specific emotion
  38. 38To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999).Suggests that there are two biological pathways of emotions in the brain due to evolution
    The short route goes from the sensory thalamus to the amygdala and leads to an instant emotion
    The long route passes via the cortex and hippocampus before it results in an emotion
    Why a short and a long route for emotion?
    In case of danger, the fast pathway saves time but makes mistakes
    The long pathway allows for more appropriate responses to situations
  39. 39Evaluate one theory of how emotions may affect one cognitive process. FLASHBULB MEMORY.Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of specific events a person often has an emotional connection to, which allows the person to remember the event in greater detail. The flashbulb memory theory has high applicability value, which is why much research is conducted on the topic. Suggested by Brown and Kulik (1977). Special kind of emotional memory.
  40. 40Two studies of flashbulb memory.Neisser and Harsh (1992): Investigated people's memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after it took place and then again 2 years later, and the incident was about the shocking experience when the seven astronauts aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986 were killed in a tragic accident. The pps were were very confident that their memories were correct, but the researchers found that 40% of the pps had distorted memories in the final reports they made. Neisser (1982) questioned the idea of flashbulb memories.
  41. 41Outline/explain one principle at the SCLOA.“We want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging with, others” --> Cialdini et al. (1975). Humans are animals who have an instinctive need to belong to others, which is why we seek a connectedness with others.
  42. 42Outline/explain one principle at the SCLOA.“We construct our conceptions of the individual self and social self” --> Tajfel et al. (1971). Humans form their own perception of who they are and because of this, we characterize ourselves based on certain principles, and these principles may be very loose, such as in the Tajfel et al. (1971) research.
  43. 43Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior.Attribution
    = how people interpret and explain causal relationships in the social world
    the process of describing reasons to a person’s behavior
    to work out WHY people are behaving in a certain manner.
    Attribution theories;
    Try to explain;
    How do we work out the reasons for people’s behavior?
    What type of information do we take into account?
    In what ways can this process go wrong?
  44. 44Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior.Definition of stereotyping
    = widely held evaluative generalizations about a group of people (Aronson, 2007)
    A stereotype is a schema with all the properties of schemas (Augoustinos, 2006)
    A social perception, to place a person in categories according to some easily and quickly identifiable characteristics such as:
    Age, sex, ethnic membership, nationality or occupation
    The process of stereotyping
    We assign someone to a particular group
    We believe that all members of the group share certain characteristics
    We infer that this particular individual must possess these characteristics
    Reasons for stereotypes
    To deal with a lot of information and complex information in the social world
    To categorize people
    To simplify how we think about others
    Lippman (1922) recognized that stereotypes are an important aspect of cognitive functioning (also Asch agreed with this, 1952)
    Stereotyping could be seen as an important way of representing social reality
  45. 45Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.Proposed by Albert Bandura, who understood that humans don’t only learn with the help of classical and operant conditioning. Humans also learn with the help of social learning. Guiding principles
    We learn behavior through observation and imitation
    = an indirect form of learning
    = vicarious learning
    States; behavior (norms) is learnt with the help of a model
    In this process we are active (we think and choose)
    Learn through observing consequences of behaviors of others =
    Vicarious reinforcement
    The observer can acquire the behavior without performing and perform it later on.
  46. 46Social learning theory studies.Bandura (1965):
    Charlton et al. (2010):
  47. 47Define the term culture and cultural norms.Culture:
    Cultural norms:
  48. 48Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts.Emic:
    Etic:
  49. 49Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the SCLOA. Method 1:x
  50. 50Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the SCLOA. Method 2:x
  51. 51Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the SCLOA. Ethical consideration 1: Active deception.Active deception is when
  52. 52Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the SCLOA. Ethical consideration 2: Informed consent.Informed consent
  53. 53Discuss two errors in attribution.1.
    2.
  54. 54Evaluate social identity theory making reference to specific studies.Social identity theory is
  55. 55Social identity theory studies.Cialdini (1975):
    Tajfel et al. (1971):
  56. 56Discuss the use of compliance techniques. FOOT IN THE DOOR.Foot in the door is
  57. 57Discuss the use of compliance techniques.x
  58. 58Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.Asch (1951):
  59. 59Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.Perrin and Spencer (1980):
  60. 60Discuss factors influencing conformity.x
  61. 61Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior. Cultural dimension 1:x
  62. 62Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior. Cultural dimension 2:s
  63. 63STUDIES - Outline/explain one principle of the BLOA. - Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLOA. Research method 1: Laboratory-based experiments. - Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the BLOA. Ethical consideration 2: Protection from harm. -Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)
  64. 64What is neurotransmission?When an electrical impulse travels down the body, or axon, of the neuron, it releases neurotransmitters which then cross the gap between two neurons, known as the synapse and are ultimately stored in the neuron's terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters have been shown in research to have a variety of effects on human behavior.
  65. 65What are hormones?Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands and can have a widespread effect on both physiology and psychology in humans. The system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream is called the endocrine system.
  66. 66Brain scans BIOLOGICAL.MRI: Ashtari et al. (2009) used MRI scans to investigate whether substance abuse (marijuana) can damage the developing brain in adolescents and young adults. They scanned the brains of 14 young men with history of heavy marijuana use and a control group of 14 young men with no such history. The results indicated that there were brain abnormalities in the frontal, parietal and temporal regions of the brains of the marijuana users.
  67. 67Brain scans BIOLOGICAL.Harris and Fiske (2006) used fMRI scans to study students' brain processes as a response to being presented with pictures of extreme outgroups. It was predicted that the medial prefrontal cortex would be active when participants looked at humans but not when they looked at objects. The scan found this, expected that when participants looked at pictures of people from extreme outgroups such as homeless and addicts, and instead brain regions related to "disgust" were activated, and the researchers thus concluded that this indicated a dehumanization of the outgroups.
  68. 68Fessler (2006)Investigated the nausea experienced by women in their first trimester of pregnancy. During the period, an infusion of hormones lowers the expectant mother's immune system so as not to fight the new foreign genetic material in her womb. Fessler gathered 496 healthy pregnant women between 18 and 50 and asked them to consider 32 potentially stomach-turning scenarios, including scenarios about food. Before asking the pregnant women to rank how disgusting they found these scenarios, Fessler posed a series of questions, designed to determine if they were experiencing morning sickness. It was shown that women in their first trimester scored much higher in disgust than their counterparts in the second and third trimester.
    CT: Difficult to test empirically some evolution-based theories, researchers may be susceptible to confirmation bias - see what they wish to see. Little is known about the behavior of early Homo Sapiens, statements about how humans used to be are susceptible.
  69. 69Curtis et al. (2004)Research on Internet to test whether there were patterns in people's disgust responses. They used an online survey in which participants were shown 20 images. For each image, they were asked to rank their level of disgust. Among the 20 images were seven pairs in which one was infectious or potentially harmful to the immune system. There were 77.000 participants from 165 countries and the findings confirmed that the disgust reaction was most strongly elicited for those images which threaten one's immune system.
  70. 70Scarr and Weinberg (1977)Focused on parents who raised both adopted and natural children. The assumption is that all the children had the same upbringing, in the same environment, with the same parents. Any significant differences between parent-child IQ correlations for adopted and natural children should be attributed to genes. The researchers found no significant difference in IQ correlations. This was interesting, because in almost all families, the adoptive parents were wealthy and white middle class people with high IQ, and the adopted children were from lower class, poor background with low-IQ parents.
  71. 71Bartlett et al. (1932) "War of the Ghosts"Aim: How memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge.
    Method: Serial reproduction of a story (NOT AN EXPERIMENT)
    Participants: British
    Procedure: Participants given a Native American story. Told to read it, then reproduce it over a period of time.
    Results: Showing that memory is an active process, and is reconstructive. Subjects’ distorted the story, by assimilation, leveling, and sharpening, where the story fit better into their own cultural understanding, the story became shorter, and the order was altered such as canoes became boats, because it was culturally more familiar to the participants.
  72. 72Sulin and Dooling (1974)Aim: Investigate if Schema-driven errors are more likely at longer retention intervals (past experiences will interact)
    Method: Lab experiment
    Procedure: Presented all participants with the same story about a dictator, whose name was either: Gerald Martin (an unknown) or Adolf Hitler (someone with associated semantic knowledge). Asked participants whether they remembered reading a statement that the dictator “hated Jews”, which did not appear in the story at two delays:
    Short (5 minutes)
    Long (1 week)
    Results:
    Short; no difference between groups.
    Long; read about Hitler were more likely to incorrectly agree that they had read about Jews.
    = influenced by schematic knowledge (schema about the real Hitler)
  73. 73Wynn and Logie (1998)Aim: prove or disprove Bartlett’s theory in a more real life setting
    Participants: students
    Method: Serial reproduction in a real life setting
    Procedure: used events experienced in the first week at university as the “original story” and reproduce after 2 weeks - 6 months
    Results: schema-induced memory distortion was not that common
  74. 74What is schema theory?Schema: An organized mental representation of information about the world, events or people, stored in long term memory.
    Does not have a physical existence (but may be related to the organization of neurons in the brain).
    CT: Strengths: Enable us to approach the world with expectations that determine how we attend to interpret, perceive, store and retrieve information. They are relatively stable and usually very resistant to change, thus ensuring continuity in the ways we process information and act.
  75. 75CT of schema theoryDescriptive value= the theory is not consistent with existing empirical data (eg hard to prove with the help of scanning)
    Schema theory seems to have a breadth
    = the theory can be applied to a broad diversity of phenonema (gender role development, depression, memory, social phenomena)
    Schema theory seems to be useful (applicability value)
    = the theory helps psychologists to understand everyday human behavior
    Also useful- help study memory?
    The theory could perhaps be said to be accurate because the key terms can be measured (operationality) and therefore falsibility value could be discussed, that is, the research has been tested in a lot of research. But the concept of schemas are still vague and difficult to truly pinpoint how they work and why they work in that way.
  76. 76Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. MULTI-STORE MODEL. part 2Unlike the sensory store, the STS memory has limited capacity, and can be anything from several seconds to half a minute. After this, it is lost, unless it is maintained in the store by rehearsal (repetition), if it is repeated, it goes into the long-term memory, where is can last a lifetime and seem to be limitless. Information can be retrieved back to the short-term store by the process of retrieval.
  77. 77Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. MULTI-STORE MODEL. part 3Main theoretical claims:
    - Memory is not unitary but compromises of three different stores
    - these stores differ from one another in a number of respects including duration, capacity and coding
    - Information flows between these stores in ways controlled by processes such as attention, retrieval and rehearsal.
  78. 78Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. MULTI-STORE MODEL. CT- a lot of supporting evidence
    - applicability value
    - heuristic value
    - first model on memory that explained the memory more in depth, influential
    - completely accurate?
    - a lot of lab experiments, low ecological validity and artificial
  79. 79Peterson and Peterson (1959)MSM: Participants were presented with consonant triples to memorize. These were presented one at a time and had to be recalled after an interval during which the pps had to count backwards in threes from a given number. The counting task lasted for 3-18 seconds, after which the pps recalled the triplet. As the time interval increased, recall of the triplets became progressively worse. After a 3 second interval pps could recall some 80% of the triplets, after 18 seconds, recall fell to less than 10%. Peterson and Peterson concluded that when rehearsal is prevented, information is very rapidly lost from the STS.
  80. 80Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)MSM: pps presented with a list of 15 words they had to memorize. Half of the pps recalled the words immediately after the presentation (immediate free recall condition) and half recalled after 30 seconds (delayed free recall). To prevent further rehearsal of the list words during the delay, pps in this second condition had to count backwards in threes from a three-digit number. What they found was the serial position curve, that the better recall of the last few words is recency effect and the first items is primacy effect which is then plotted in a curve.
  81. 81Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. WORKING MEMORY MODEL. study baddeley and hitch (1974)Three tasks at the same time;
    1) Verbal reasoning “A is preceded by B” BA
    2) Comprehension of spoken pose passages
    3) Free recall of word lists
    Before each trial, pps were given a string of digits/letters to remember and report after the trial
    Light memory load (1-2 digits/letters)
    Heavy memory load (- 6 digits/letters)
    Results;
    Low memory load → no decrement in performance
    High memory load → slight decrement in all three tasks
    But participants were still able to perform the tasks well
    Conclusion; Short term memory is involved in all three tasks
    STM not only a passive receiver of information
    There must be more to STM than just what was used for the digit span
  82. 82The actual theory WMM part 1Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and Baddeley (1986) challenged the passive view of the multi store model; STM
    They suggested the Working Memory Model as an alternative to STM
    The working memory model state that the “STM” is an active store and it manipulates the information
    Consist of three parts (1974)
    But the model has been developed over the years to include findings from new research
    Consists today of four parts (1986)
    Parts;
  83. 83The actual theory WMM part 2Central executive -
    A control system
    Monitors and co-ordinates the operations of the other components
    Decides how attention is directed
    Allocates the resources
    Has limited capacity so cannot attend to many things at once
    Studies: the central executive;
    Baddeley
    Asked pps to think of random digits that bore no connection to each other (by tapping in numbers on a keyboard)
    Either carried out on its own, or with one of the following tasks:
    1) Reciting the alphabet
    2) Counting from 1
    3) Alternating between letters and numbers e.g. A1b2c3
    Generated number stream was much less random in condition 3 -
    Baddeley said they were competing for the same executive resources
  84. 84The actual theory WMM part 3Episodic buffer
    General storage space for both acoustic and visual information
    It integrates information from the central executive, the phonological loop, the visual sketchpad, and the long-term memory.
    Has limited capacity
  85. 85The actual theory WMM part 4Phonological loop
    Deals with auditory information and the order of information
    Baddeley (1986) divided it into two components:
    1) The auditory store (the inner ear), holds information in speech based form for 1-2 seconds, if not refreshed by...
    2) The articulatory control process (the inner voice), used to rehearse verbal information from the auditory store
    Word-length affect: It seems the phonological loop holds the amount of information that you can say in 1.5- 2 seconds (Baddeley et al 1975). This makes it hard to remember a list of long words such as “association” compared to shorter words
    Evaluation: Baddeley (1986). PPs studied 2 different list types, 1 syllable or 5 syllables. The longer reading rate seemed to determine recall performance worse. The “inner ear” could only hold information for 1.5 - 2 seconds, and if the “inner voice” could repeat we remember better.
  86. 86The actual theory WMM part 5Visuo-spatial sketchpad
    = the inner eye
    Holds visual (what things look like) and
    spatial (relationship between objects)
    information is held for a very short time
    You use it when you are planning a spatial task i.e. going from your home to school
    Scanning evidence: Dellasala 1999 - visual and spatial components. Results showed that the sketchpad has separate visual and spatial brain locations
  87. 87CT WMMIt suggests that rehearsal is an optional process, which is more realistic than the multi-store model
    The model can explain how we can successfully do two tasks at the same time =
    Dual-task paradigm
    repeating a word and reading a text could not be done (interefere because both use the phonological loop)
    Repeating a word and a spatial task could be performed (use the phonological loop and the other the visuo-spatial sketchpad)
    Capacity improve a lot during the age of 5-15 years.
    A lot of evidence show that problems with WM are associated with problems in academic performance
    Useful knowledge for educators?
    Least is known about the function of the most important component, the central executive
    It is too rigid and simplistic
    Emphasis on structure (= what it looks like) rather than processing (how it works)
    does not explain changes that occur as the result of practice or time
  88. 88Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) part 2In the IFR condition, Glanzer and Cunitz obtained the expected serial position curve with pronounced primacy and recency effects. The recency effect was from the STS and the primary from the LTS. Given that the STS lasts no longer than 30 seconds, the recency effect should disappear. This is exactly what Glanzer and Cunitz found.
  89. 89Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process. CULTURAL FACTORS. STUDIESKagan, 1979
    Aim; to compare memory performance of Western and non-Western children
    Methods; free recall experiment (IV= culture) (DV= scores on the memory test)
    Participants; Mayan & US schoolchildren between ages of 6-13
    Results; Poorer performance by non-Western children
    Memory not universal - cultural factors affect...but
    Biased test approach!
    Cognitive psychologists have traditionally been conducting research in western countries
    In the 1990’s more and more research into different cultures
    When researcher from the west performed memory tests on participants from non-western countries they performed poorly
    Not always interpreted correctly - western bias. The test was biased and not valid to apply in another country.
  90. 90Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process. CULTURAL FACTORS. STUDIESRogoff and Waddel (1982)
    Aim; compared the memory in two cultures
    Participants; children from the US and a Mayan village
    Method; free recognition experiment
    Procedure; made a model of a Mayan village
    Made 80 little plastic figurines of stuff you would find in the village
    Made a dioroma of a scene in the US for the American children (from Salt Lake City)
    They then put 20 of the figures in the model village and let the kids look at it
    They then took out the 20 figures and put them back with the 60
    Asked the children to recreate the village with the 20 figures in it
    Who did better?
    The mayans! Maybe because their culture (and schemas) were suited towards memorizing objects
    A cultural factor seems to affect remembering of objects
  91. 91Flashbulb memoriesBrown and Kulik (1977)
    Aim: to investigate the idea of flashbulb memories
    Method: interview
    Participants: 80
    Procedure: pps were asked questions, testing their memories of ten major events
    Results:
    Memories for such events were particularly vivid, detailed, long lasting
    Remembered: where they were when they heard it, how they heard it, what they and others were doing at the time, and the emotional effect it had on them and others around them
    Conclusion:
    Flashbulb memory: allows people to remember minor details of an event that they would otherwise forget
    CT:
    Strengths:
    Easily replicable. Ecologically valid
    Latest research supports that memory recall is more confident in FBMS
    FBM, more permanent because of the encouragement of rehearsal
    Weaknesses:
    few control. accuracy of memory can’t be measured little evidence that emotion affects encoding phase
    FBM may not last longer than everyday memory. cross cultural aspects not considered
  92. 92flashbulb memoriesBerntsen and Thomsen (2005)
    Aim: to investigate flashbulb memories
    Participants: 145 Danes, between 72 and 89 y/o, sampled through network sampling. A control group of younger participants
    Method: interview, questionnaire
  93. 93flashbulb memoriesProcedure: The participants were asked about their memories of finding out about the Danish occupation and liberation. They were also asked whether they were collaborators, resistance or citizen in the area in question. They were also asked about their most positive and negative memories from the war, and were asked to link personal memories to specific events during the war. They were then given a questionnaire on factual details, that could be compared to and verified by historical archives, and the same questionnaire was given to the control group
    Results: Almost all in the older sample reported memories of the Danish invasion and liberation, and the older participants remembered more than the younger, and gave 55% accurate answers in contrast to the control group on the factual questionnaire. Furthermore, the accuracy, clarity and vividity of the memories were higher with the ones that had reported to be part of the resistance.
  94. 94MEMORY IS RELIABLEBahrick et al (1975)
    Aim; prove that memory could be reliable over time
    Participants; 400, 17-74 years old
    Method and procedure;
    A free recall test; name verbally as many people from your graduation class
    A photo recognition test; from 50 pictures identify your class (visual task)
    A name recognition test; from the names tell about the people (visual task)
    Results; 15 years after graduation 90% accurrate name and faces, 48 years after 80% verbal, 70% visual
    High reliability over a long period of time
  95. 95MEMORY IS NOT RELIABLEMemory can be changed
    Memory can be unreliable because of;
    Memory reconstruction
    Reconstructive nature of memory
    Memory, side-effect of comprehension
    = details can be filled in or reconstructed at retrieval time
    We use schemas to organise our memories
    When we activate a schema relevant to an event we may distort the memory
    = reconstructive nature of memory
  96. 96memory is not reliable part 2Loftus and Palmer (1974): Investigated the role of leading questions in recall. The aim of the laboratory experiment was to see if changing one word in certain critical questions would influence speed estimates. The pps were 45 students, who first saw films of traffic accidents and then had to estimate the speed of the car in the film, the IV was the verb changes. "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Hit became "smashed", "collided", "bumped" and "contracted".
  97. 97memory is not reliable part 3The dependent variable in this experiment was the estimation of speed (in miles/hour). The researchers found that the mean speed estimate was in fact affected by the words, so that "smashed" and "collided" increased the estimated speed. The interpretation of the results was that the use of different verbs activated different schemas in memory, so that the participant hearing the word "smashed" may actually imagine the accident as more severe than a participant hearing the word "contracted".
  98. 98memory is reliable part 4Yuille and Cutshall (1986) have criticized Loftus's research for lack of eco validity. Performing research on memory in a laboratory does not reflect how and what people remember in real life, they argue. They used Loftus's technique in interviewing people who had witnessed a real robbery and found that misleading questions did not seem to distort people's memory. Instead, they found that the memory for the details in this real-life situation was quite amazing. It seemed that the wording of the question had no effect on recall, and those who were most distressed by the situation had the most accurate memories.
  99. 99Emotions CLOAWhat are emotions?
    Emotion= A subjective feeling provoked by real or imagined objects or events
    Elements of emotions
    Physiological changes in the face, brain, and body
    Cognitive processes such as interpretations of events
    Cultural influences that shape the experience and expression of emotion
    In another way
    A stimuli
    Biological factors= physiological activity and body arousal
    Cognitive appraisal= understanding of what is going on
    Behavior associated with the emotion
    e.g. smiling (facial expressions), running away, violence
    What components come first?
    Psychologists have long debated the role physiological, cognitive, and behavioral factors play in emotion.
    James and Lange (1890) - the body informs the mind
    Cannon (1929) - the emotion and the physiological arousal at the same time
  100. 100To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? Lazarus Appraisal Theory (1975) part 2Speismen et al (1964)
    Method: Lab based experiment
    PPS: Girls and boys
    Procedure: were exposed to a film with an unpleasant genital surgery and three conditions (IV) where the soundtrack was different;
    1) Trauma (pain)
    2) Denial (happy about the surgery)
    3) Intellectualization (explain surgery)
    4) Control group with no soundtrack
    Measured heart rate, skin test, and self-report
    Results: More emotions in trauma condition = interpretation (cognition) of situation
    Critical thinking; well controlled lab experiment, scientific measure (heart rate) unethical? Artificial setting, evidence for the theory?
    Evidence against
    Some studies fail to get results that are entirely consistent with the theory
    Zajonc (1984)
    Affective feeling (face expression and physiological reactions) comes before cognitive processes (evaluation of the situation)
    A baby can feel anger/fear but must learn to understand what is meant by anger/fear
  101. 101To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? Lazarus Appraisal Theory (1975) part 3Critical thinking
    Useful theory - has been applied in health psychology (i.e. prevent and handle stress)
    Lazarus and Folkman (1985)
    Reliability = how consistent
    Internal = Method reliable “within itself”
    External= Move the results over time, with same participants - results should be similar
    Inter- Rater= Two researchers rate the same study
    Validity = measure what it is supposed to
    Internal = Due to IV + DV and not something else, control of IV + DV
    External = Move study → to different participants or environment
    Content/face= Look valid - looks like it measures what it is supposed to do
    Concurrent = same results with different methods
    Construct = results used to support a theory (concerning IV + DV)
    Predictive = “Guess”= future performance will get same results
    Ecological= does it reflect real-life setting
  102. 102To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? Lazarus Appraisal Theory (1975) part 4Interaction Lazarus
    Close interrelationship between thinking and emotions
    Cognition is an essential part of all emotional states
  103. 103To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999). part 2Biological factor
    Empases the role of amygdala
    Proven by Feinstein (2010)
    A case study (SM) disease - no amygdala -
    Exposed to a lot of real life fear situations, watched horrror films, wrote an emotional diary three times a day
    Can’t experience fear but reported other emotions
    LeDoux own studies
    Has focused mainly on fear in his research
    Mapped out the two routes in rats
    Created fear with the help of classical conditioning (associate two stimuli)
    (Operant - with the help of reinforcement)
    Found the short route after lesion
    A long route and a short route- how does the brain know which one to decide?
  104. 104To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999). part 3Explanations
    Phelps (2004) suggests that
    in emotional situations the amygdala modulate memory encoding and storage of explicit memories
    so that some emotional events can receive priority (short route)
    Öhman (1999) and DeGalder (2005) suggests that fear related stimuli activates phobic responses
    which would be based on a direct link
  105. 105To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999). part 4Öhman et al (1994)
    Aim; test if a phobic stimuli could be analyzed pre-attentive to elicit human fear response
    Method; lab-experiment
    Participants; from 825 undergraduates with the help of a questionaire selected 8 fearful and 8 non-fearful (both men and women)
    Procedure; exposed to fearful stimuli directly or masked
    Results; the fearful participants reacted more (skin conductance) to both direct and masked stimuli
    Conclusion; Pre-attentive activation of an emotion
    Interaction LeDoux
    Experiences help to evaluate the danger before a response
    The short route - less cognitive activity but the short routes are created because of a learnt experience
    The long route - more cognitive activity (explained by Lazarus appraisal theory?)
  106. 106LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999) part 5Conclusion
    The primacy of biology and cognition in emotions remains open to debate
    However, a what research does show is that there is a high level of interaction between the two
    And that emotion is a combination of both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal
    The interaction is complex and not yet well known
  107. 107Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior. part 2The process
    Our own behavior is motivated, not random
    Therefore we look for reasons behind other people’s behavior
    We try to discover personality traits or stable properties of situations, that cause behavior.
    When we attribute we distinguish between internal factors and external factors
    Two important factors:
    Dispositional factors
    These factors are based on something internal observed within the individual
    = temperament, personality, emotional state and abilities
    2) Situational factors
    Based on something external
    = causes found in the situation, environment, pressure from others, laws and norms
  108. 108Kelly's covariation theory (1967)Information from several sources/events is used to pin down the covariation of observed behavior and its possible causes
    1) Does the behavior always or sometimes occur?
    = consistency
    2) Is the behavior related to one or many stimuli?
    = distinctiveness
    3) Do other people do the same behavior to the same extent?
    = consensus
  109. 109McArthur (1972) - research on Kelly's covariation theoryMcArthur (1972)
    Method; Lab experiment
    Participants; 87 male undergraduates
    Procedure; given a series of one sentence descriptions of actions, opinions, and feelings
    Sue is afraid of the dog, John laughs at the comedian
    IV= the descriptions were followed by different combinations of low or high CDC
    DV= attribute the reason - why the people behaved the way they did - how the participants explained the different behaviors
    Results; likely to make dispositional attribution when it was high consistency, low distinctiveness and low consensus
    Other combinations produced situational attributions
    Conclusion; Found support for McArthur’s attribution theory
    Information on consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency is important in determining causal attribution
    The patterns predict dispositional and situational attributions
    However, participants made less use of consensus than predicted
    Evaluation
    + The theory has been influential and there is some support for the three factors and the covariation principle
    Alloy et al (1984) - we don’t use information in this systematic way
  110. 110Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. part 2 - formation of stereotypesKatz and Braly, 1933
    One of the earliest studies of stereotypes of ethnicities
    Aim; to find out whether traditional social stereotypes were actually held by Princeton students
    Method; Questionnaire (adjective check-list)
    Participants; 100 students at Princeton University (all male and white)
    Procedure; students were presented with a list of ethnic groups
    (Americans, Jews, African Americans, Turks, Germans, Chinese, Irish, English, Italians, and Japanese)
    and 84 words describing personality
    Results; The students showed considerable agreement, especially about negative traits
    (For example, 48% said Americans are intelligent, 49% said they are hardworking)
  111. 111Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. part3- effect on behavior studySteele and Aronsson (1995)
    Aim; Effect of stereotype threats
    Method; experiment
    Participants; black and white students at a college in the US
    Procedure; Group 1 (stereotype threat) was told that intelligence was being measured and then did a test
    Group 2 were not told anything except that they would do the test
    Results; the stereotype threat was shown within the black students
    (in Group 1). Not shown in Group 2.
  112. 112Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. part4- effect on behaviorSocial cognitive theories
    Based on the following steps;
    Our world is complex - too much information, need to simplify
    therefore we use social categorization
    = stereotypes
    has the following characteristics; energy-saving, automatically, stable and resistant to change affect behavior.
  113. 113Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. part5- effect on behaviorSocial identity theory
    Tajfel argues that stereotypes is a natural cognitive process of social categorization
    We naturally categorize other people into ingroups and outgroups
    an automatic, unconscious process
    We pay attention to ingroup and outgroup members who maximize positive distinctiveness
  114. 114Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. part6- effect on behavior - stereotype threatStereotype threat
    Formulated by Steele and Aronsson (1995)
    Occurs when a person who is exposed to a stereotype is negatively affected in his/her performance
    Stereotype threats turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance
    The threats could be; judged stereotyping, treated stereotyping, or a fear of acting in a manner that confirms the stereotype
  115. 115Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 2The models;
    We are more likely to copy;
    Models who are liked, admired, and respected
    … who are similar (age and sex)
    … who are reinforced
    … who are consistent in their behavior. Four processes
    Attention = observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to the model
    Retention = the observer must remember the behavior. Depends on the observer’s ability to code information in an easily remembered form.
    Motor reproduction = the observer must be physically and intellectually capable of producing the act
    Motivation = the observer will perform the act only if she/he have some motivation or reason to do so.
  116. 116Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 3Huesmann and Eron (1977-1992): Aim;
    Investigate viewing media violence in childhood and young-adult aggressive behavior
    Participants; 557 children, 1977, and 450 in their early 20s, 1992
    Methods; Longitudinal study triangulation method
    Procedure; Monitoring children’s behavior during a 2-year period (1-4th grade)
    2-years follow-up period after 15 years
    1977 - interviews and observations
    1992 - self report, another person’s report, archival state data. Results were that a positive correlation between the number of hours of violence watched on television by elementary school children and the level of aggression demonstrated when they were teenagers. They also found that those who watched a lot of television violence when they were 8 years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults.
  117. 117Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 4Bandura (1961): Experimental investigation on learning aggression from a model
    Aim: To see if children would imitate the aggression of an adult model and whether they would imitate same.sex models more than opposite sex models
  118. 118Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 5 - procedureProcedure: Participants were 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School (mean age 4.4) who were divided in three groups matched on levels of aggressiveness before the laboratory experiment. One group saw the adult model aggressively towards a bobo doll, one group saw the model assemble toys, and the last group served as control. The children were further divided into groups so that some saw same-sex models and some opposite-sex models.
  119. 119Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 6 - procedureThe laboratory was set up as a play room with toys and a bobo doll. The model either played with the toys or behaved aggressively towards the doll. After seeing this, the children were brought into a room with toys and told not to play with them in order to frustrate them. Then, they were taken into a room with toys and a a bobo doll where they were observed for 20 minutes through a one-way mirror.
  120. 120Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 7 - resultsChildren who had seen an aggressive model were significantly more aggressive (physically and verbally) towards the bobo doll. They imitated the aggressive behavior of the model but also showed other forms of aggression. Children were also more likely to imitate same-sex models. Boys were overall more aggressive than girls.
  121. 121Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 8 - discussion of resultsThis key study supports social learning theory. Aggressive behavior can be learned through observational learning. It is not possible to conclude that children always become aggressive when they watch violent models (e.g. on television or at home). Generally, research supports that children tend to imitate same-sex models more and this is also the case for adults.
  122. 122Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 8 - evaluationThe laboratory experiment is low in ecological validity. The aggression here is artificial and there may be demand characteristics. The children were very young and it has been criticized for ethical reasons.
  123. 123Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 9 - Charlton et al. (2002)Observation of the introduction of television in a remote community (St. Helena).
    Aim: To investigate whether children in St. Helena would exhibit more aggressive behavior after the introduction of television to the island in 1995.
  124. 124Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 10 - Charlton et al. (2002)Procedure: The study was a natural experiment. Children (aged 3-8) were observed before and after the introduction of television through cameras set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools on the island. The level of aggression in television matched what children in the UK were exposed to. The researchers also conducted interviews with teachers, parents, and some of the older children. Results: There was no increase in aggressive or antisocial behavior. This was also the case after five years.
  125. 125Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 11 - Charlton et al. (2002)Discussion of results: The data showed that children did not change their behavior after television had arrived although they saw the same amount of violent television as British children. The parents and teachers said that antisocial behavior was not accepted on the island and that there was a high degree of social control in the community. It shows that people may learn aggressive behavior but they may not exhibit it for several reasons. Social and cultural factors also play a role in what behaviors are acceptable, so even though the children had no doubt learned aggressive behavior, they did not show it.
  126. 126Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies. part 12 - Charlton et al. (2002)Evaluation: The study investigated a real-life event and is high in ecological validity. It does not question SLT but rather the results of Bandura and Ross (1961). The results also confirm the idea that people must be motivated to imitate behavior.
  127. 127Define the terms culture and cultural norms - cultureCulture is acquired knowledge that people use to filter life experiences and to generate social behavior. It is learnt, shared, cumulative, symbolic, integrated
    and dynamic. There is no single generally accepted definition of culture. Shiraev and Levy (2004): A set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group communicated from one generation to the next. Hofstede (2002)
    = schemas (= cognitive structures that represent a person’s knowledge about objects etc):
    That has been internalized. That affects thinking, emotion, and behavior. That is shared within a socio-cultural group. That is learn through daily interactions and feedback from members of the group
  128. 128Define the terms culture and cultural norms - cultural normsNorms = social rules and guidelines; determine appropriate behavior in specific situations. It is more fundamental and longer-lasting (ethnic identity)
    = expected behaviors and attitudes in an ethnic group which form a specific identity
    = behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups passed down from generation to generation by observational learning by the group’s gatekeepers - parents, teachers, religious leaders, and peers include such things as how marriage partners are chosen, attitudes towards alcohol consumption, and acceptance (or rejection) of spanking children. Cultural norms give us a sense of integrity, safety, and belonging.
  129. 129Define the terms culture and cultural norms - cultural dimensions studyHofstede's study: Method; 160,000 questionnaires and a content analysis of the results
    Results; content-analysis, he tried to see different themes in the answers (after analysis)
    Participants; 60,000 responded from 50 countries, all of them worked at IBM (multinational company, offices all around the world); IBM staff.
    Hofstede’s research is qualitative
    Observation (of all results) → pattern → tentative hypothesis → theory (in Western countries we are like this, in Eastern countries we are like this)
    Interested in understanding gained through words. Identified key cultural differences between countries
    The differences trends he found were called dimensions. In this study he found four dimensions to characterize cross-cultural difference (four huge differences), Individualism-collectivism (seen as a line/spectrum, one on one edge, one on another edge), Masculinty-femininity, Power distance, Uncertainty avoidance.
  130. 130Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts.The terms originated from Pike (1954).
    Emic: Study the behavior from the inside = through the eyes of the people who live in that culture. Study one culture at the time. Focus on one specific phenomena (norms, values, traditions). The researcher, discover structures = the way the phenomena is linked to the culture. Aim; to understand culture specific behavior. Emphasize the uniqueness of every culture.
    Etic: Study behavior from outside
    Studies many cultures - compare and contrast cultures. The structure is created by the researcher. Criteria is absolute (seen in one culture) or universal (seen in all cultures). Cross-cultural - Psychologists focusing on what is diverse. Identify universal behavior and compare. Aim; to understand if phenomena are culture specific or universal.
  131. 131Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts. ETIC STUDYKagan (1979) own study.
    Why important to take into account? Before the 70s most researchers studied behavior in one culture (often their own) and believed that what was true in that culture was true in all cultures
    Later, cross-cultural psychology became popular (Seagull, Berry) but the problem was that they studied a new culture from their own perspective (instruments, methods, wording...) = imposed etic. If researchers compare their own culture studied from the inside (emic) and other culture from the outside (imposed etic) the result could be wrong, biased, and patronizing. But must be aware of that it’s from the outside and then from this go to an emic approach.
  132. 132Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts. EMIC STUDYRogoff and Waddell (1982): Found that Mayan children did better in a memory task if they were given one that was meaningful to them in local terms.
    The researchers constructed a miniature model of a Mayan village, which resembled the children’s own village.
    The researcher then selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 (e.g. animals, furniture, people) and placed them in the model.
    Then the objects were taken out of the model and replaced among the 60 objects.
    After a few minutes, the experimenter asked the children to reconstruct the scene they had been shown.
    Under these conditions, the Mayan children did slightly better than the children from the USA.
    The study shows that the content and context of a memory task are important and that useful memory strategies are learned in a socio-cultural context.
  133. 133WHY EMIC APPROACH?Berry (1969) argued that the researcher must start to study the culture from an etic perspective because the techniques from the researcher’s own culture is rooted and well-known. But must be aware of that it’s from the outside and then from this go to an emic approach. Discuss limitations, this could be a limitation. be aware of it. This is an issue which the researcher is aware of.
    A lot of researchers are aware of this and try to improve. They try to go from an imposed etic to an emic. If researchers compare two cultures from an emic perspective they can come to a derived etic comparison (e.g. methods, language, objects, and concepts). The researcher must be aware of which viewpoint they have when they are doing research. The reader of a report must also know the perspective (or see through it). To be able to interpret the results in a correct manner.
  134. 134PARTICULAR RESEARCH METHODS SCLOA- Laboratory experiments --> Bandura and Ross et al. (1961).
  135. 135Particular research methods SCLOA- Natural experiments
  136. 136Ethical considerations SCLOAx
  137. 137Ethical considerations SCLOAx
  138. 138Two errors in attribution: error 1: fundamental attribution error (FAE)Basic ideas;
    We exaggerate the importance of dispositional factors
    This makes behavior more predictable
    = underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors. Lee Ross (1977) formulated a theory
    We tend to attribute humans behavior to disposition “they are like that”, rather than to situational factors. Reasons; a cognitive strategy - simplify the complex world use selective attention to easily process information. Individual behavior stands out and is easier to focus on than the context of the situation often background information about the situation. Language is richer in terms used to describe behavior than situations.
  139. 139Fundamental attribution error studyLee Ross (1974)
    Aim: to prove the FAE theory
    Participants; females
    Method; Lab experiment
    Procedure; The participants were told that they had done;
    IV; well/badly on a problem-solving task
    False scores and the feedback was not true
    Participants then rated their ability on the task;
    Estimate how well they thought they had done and how well they would do if they did the task again
    Result; Participants who got information that they had done well -
    higher ratings on future tasks
    more positive estimates
    Participants who got information that they had done badly
    - lower ratings on future task
    less positive estimates
    Conclusion; Participants made dispositional attributions in both cases (exaggerated this factor). Did not blame the task or the feedback (situational factors).
  140. 140Attribution error 2: Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias
    A lot of different researchers
    Definition; “The tendency to take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure” - Fiske and Taylor, 1991. Take credit for success = self-enhancing bias. Deny responsibility for failure
    = self-protective bias
    Basic ideas;
    We have a tendency to attribute success to internal (dispositional) factors and failure to (situational) factors
    Reasons for Self-serving bias
    Motivational explanation -
    Clearly ego-serving (protect from self-evaluation). Cognitive reasons-think we will succeed. Taking responsibility for success means we present ourselves in the best possible light. It is normal and biologically adaptive to maintain positive self-esteem.
  141. 141Self-serving bias studyKingdon (1967)
    Aim; to prove SSB theory
    Participants; politicians
    Method; interview (structured)
    Procedure; asked why they had won/lost elections. Result; those who had won attributed success due to hard work etc….
    Those who had lost - failure attributed due to things like not having enough money for publicity etc …so the winners gave dispositional attributions
    losers gave situational attributions
    Lau and Russell (1980)
    Aim; prove SSB theory
    Participants; American professional athletes and coaches
    Method; content analysis
    Procedure; analysed interviews in newspapers about how they attributed when they won or lost
    Result; 80% attributed their wins to internal factors (ability, skills) and losses to external factors (bad luck, unfair refereeing) Conclusion; so winners gave dispositional attributions and losers gave situational attributions
  142. 142Social identity theoryWhat is social identity theory? The theory
    It is based on 4 interrelated concepts;
    1) Social identity 2) Social categorization
    3) Social comparison 4) Positive distinctiveness.
    Social identity We all have; A personal identity = self-knowledge. Coming from the individual’s unique attributes
    And a social identity: Correspond to group membership
    Different social contexts may trigger a person to think, feel and act on basis of his/her group memberships
    A person has multiple “social identities”
    Social categorization: We classify people into categories (groups). In-groups = to which an individual belongs (us). Out-groups = to which the individual does not belong to (them)
  143. 143Evaluate SITMany different methods (triangulation)
    A lot of schools, a lot of participants (variations)
    Both quantitative (experiment - observation) and qualitative (interviews)
    High ecological validity - natural observation and field experiment
    The research proves a “real life” behavior = useful
    Control?
    Subjectivity - interpretation
  144. 144SIT Tajfel et al. (1970)Tajfel et al 1970
    intergroup discrimination
    Procedure;
    1) categorize into groups (random)
    A:Over/underestimate
    B: Klee/Kandinsky
    2) Give money to other boys with the help of a pair of numbers
    3) IV= “your” group “other” group - different groups
    4) Results: more ingroup favoritism, even on a loose categorization such as artists (minimal)
  145. 145SIT Cialdini et al. (1976) "Basking in reflected glory"Aim; investigate if we associate oneself with successful others (= ingroup). Bask in reflected glory.
    Method; natural observations, interviews and field experiments
    Participants; students from 7 different schools with prestigious football teams
    Procedure; observed clothing after football games, interviewed and analysed the use of “we” and “them” after a football game, experiment with IV positive or negative feedback about teams and DV “we”
    Results; more university clothes, more “we” when the team won and their own public image was threatened
  146. 146Compliance techniquesWhat are they?
  147. 147Compliance technique 1: Foot in the door techniquex
  148. 148Compliance technique 2:x
  149. 149STUDIES ON COMPLIANCEx
  150. 150STUDIES ON COMPLIANCEx
  151. 151Evaluate research on conformity to group normsAsch (1951)
  152. 152Evaluate research on conformity to group normsPerrin and Spencer (1980): Confidence
    Perrin and Spencer (1988)
    found that when they replicated Asch’s study with engineers and medical students, conformity rates were almost null
    the participants felt competent to make their own decision.
  153. 153Discuss factors influencing conformityA type of social influence where people alter their behavior, attitudes and beliefs to perceived group and cultural norms.
    Awareness of the group norm
    Conformity increases when the norm is “activated” or brought to the person’s attention
    A theory about group think and risky shift
    Janis 1972 investigated decisions made by American administrations which had political consequences
    Method; content analysis of historical archives of political records (e.g. Cuba and the Korean war)
    He developed a theory about poor decision making:
    1) high group cohesiveness
    2) expert views from others (but don’t use them)
    3) situational forces (stress)
    Poor decisions arose from:
    Groupthink = a tendency for a group to make poor decisions driven by a need for a united front and conformity
    Each member conform to what they believed is the group consensus
    Risky shift = the tendency for a group to make riskier decisions than the individual.
  154. 154Discuss factors influencing conformity part 2Critical thinking
    Proved that groupthink is a factor in conformity within groups in real life
    Many other qualitative research backs up the theory
    But more complex than Janis suggested
    E.g. groupthink can sometimes move to extreme safe decisions
    Applicability value - how to avoid groupthink and risky shift = discuss and use objective experts.
  155. 155Discuss factors influencing conformity part 3Group unanimity: Asch introduced social support to the naive participant, either another naive participant or a confederate who had been instructed to go along with the naive participant. The presence of a supporter reduced errors from 35% to around 5.5%. This is particularly
  156. 156Discuss factors influencing conformity- STUDIESx
  157. 157Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior- one cultural dimensionCultural dimension: A theory which provides a systematic framework for assessing the differences between nations and cultures.
    Individualism vs collectivism
    It indicates the degree of social/community integration. How people define themselves and the relationships with others
    Individualism
    Results; USA (highest score in individualism) prefer singular environment
    self-interest prevails before the interest of the group identity is defined by personal characteristics persons are viewed as unique (specific) autonomy and self-expression are highly valued competitiveness and self-sufficiency are highly valued.
  158. 158Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior- another cultural dimension - 2) studiesBasset (2004) - long-term orientation versus short-term orientation. Qualitative research to compare perception of conflict resolution in Australian and Chinese students. Aim: To investigate differences in Chinese and Australian students' perception of conflict resolution in relation to 1) the collectivist vs individualist dimension and 2) long-term vs. short-term orientation.
  159. 159Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior - studiesWei et al. (2000): survey on collectivism vs. individualism n conflict resolution styles. Aim: to investigate the extent to which the dimension of individualism vs collectivism influenced conflict resolution communication styles.
  160. 160Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior - studies part 2Procedure: A group of 600 managers working in companies in Singapore was randomly selected for this survey. The participants were divided into four groups: Japanese, American, Chinese Singaporeans working in multinational companies and Chinese Singaporeans working in local companies. Questionnaires and correlational analysis were used to find possible relationships between scores on cultural dimension and conflict resolution style.
  161. 161Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior - studies part 3Results: Generally, the higher the score in the individualist dimension the more likely the manager was to adopt a dominating conflict resolution style. American managers (individualist dimension) were generally more likely to adopt a dominating conflict resolution style and less likely to adopt an avoiding conflict resolution style than Asian managers. Asian managers did not always adopt an avoidant conflict resolution style as predicted by the collectivism-individualism dimension. In some cases, American managers who had been in Singapore for several years had adopted a more Asian conflict resolution style.
  162. 162Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior - studies part 4Discussion: The collectivism vs. individualism dimension in relation to conflict resolution styles was only somewhat confirmed. The researchers conclude that conflict resolution styles are complex and cannot be reduced to cultural dimensions alone. For example, differences found within the groups of Asian managers were larger than between groups.
  163. 163Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior - studies part 5Evaluation: The survey used a large and representative cross-cultural sample of managers in Singapore so the results may be generalized. The study relies on self-reports so there may be issues of reliability of the data but overall the results are reliable.
  164. 164Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior- another cultural dimension - 2) studies - part 2Procedure: The investigation was a qualitative cross-cultural study. The students were bachelor students of business and management. They were asked to analyze a potential conflict situation between a Japanese supervisor and a Canadian visiting assistant teacher. The same question was answered by 30 students (15 Chinese and 15 Australian), each from their own cultural perspective: "Discuss how this conflict might be resolved in China (or Australia)."
  165. 165Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior- another cultural dimension - 2) studies - part 3Results: Generally, the data confirmed Hofstede's individualist and collectivist dimensions but not all data could be explained by this. As for long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation, in Chinese data confirmed the importance of this dimension in understanding behavior.
  166. 166Fundamental attribution error study 2Morris and Peng (1994)
    Aim; Investigate FAE
    Method; content analysis
    Procedure; Analyzing Chinese and American newspapers covering the same two mass-murder incidents
    Results; The Chinese attribution was more likely situational and the American attribution more dispositional
  167. 167Self-serving biasEvaluation of SSB
    There is a good deal of experimental evidence to support this hypothesis
    The evidence is also found in different cultures (Fletcher and Ward, 1988)
    But opposite evidence is also found;
    Nurmi (1992) found that SSB was more used among US than Finn students
    Kashima and Triandis (1986) found that US students use SSB more than Japanese students
    Mezulis (2004) did a meta-analysis (266 studies) and found SSB to be strongest in US and other Western cultures and lowest in Asian cultures
    Conclusion
    Looking at all the contradicting evidence and biases…
    Can we really know how accurate our attribution is?
    But the different explanation help us to interact with people in our everyday life.
    Our justice system is based upon how we validate judgement of responsibility and blame
    Some bias and errors are found in “paper and pen” tasks and not in real life tasks = social psychology too artificial.
    Errors and bias can’t be generalized across cultures (FAE)
    SSB more cultural evidence
  168. 168FAEEvaluation FAE and cultural issues
    The FAE is more common in “individualistic” societies than in “collectivistic” societies
    Choi and Nisbett, 1998
    Good evidence to support this effect
    But - opposite effect can occur
    Also, Burger (1991) found the participants attribute to disposition factor one week and a week later they attributed to situational factors instead
  169. 169Evaluate Tajfel's studyEvaluating Tajfel’s research:
    A lot of control (lab based experiments)
    Several hundred studies and cross-cultural studies support the “minimal group paradigm” and social identity theory. (Hogg and Vaughan, 2008)
    Lonsdale and North (2009) created groups based on music taste - proved minimal group paradigm (still relevant)
    Demand characteristics - if adults put children into groups they will interpret these groups as “teams” and compete (but same results even if participants don’t know about the research)
    Artificial? Low ecological validity but same results in field research
    Interpretation bias? The ingroup favoritism was not that big - could it be fairness instead of discrimination?
    Dobbs and Crano (2001) have shown that under some circumstances there is much less in-group favoritism than suggested by Tajfel.

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International Baccalaureate Psychology Flashcards on IB Psychology, created by D D on 12/05/2016.
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