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Forensic Psychology

Oliver Philpott Psychology A level English 86 cards

Forensic Psychology

Cards in this deck (86)

  1. 1Crime.Any act committed in violation fo the law where the consquence of conviction by a court is punishment.
  2. 2Cultural Issues in Defining Crime.Definitions of crime vary across culturally, meaning what is considered a crime in one culture may not be in another. E.g. In the Uk having more than one wife is the crime of bigamy, whereas not in other. In 2014 forced marriage was made illegal in the UK but is still practised in some ultures.
  3. 3Historical Issues in Defining Crime.The legal system changes its laws over time therefore some acts that would have previously been illegal is now legal. E.g. Homosexuality was deemed illegal until 1967. A parents right ot smack a child was outlawed in 2004.
  4. 4Circumstancial Issues in Defining Crime.There are circumstances where an act can be excused, following Actus reus and Mens rea. Actus reus means that the crime should be voluntary, and Mens rea means the act must have intent. If niether of these are present then a crime is unlickely to be convicted.
  5. 5Ways of Measuring Crime.The ONS publishes crime stats every quater.
  6. 6Official Statistics.Government records of total no. of crimes reported to the police and recorded in official figures. Usefull as a snapshot of crime across the country and specific regions, allowing the government to develope crime prevention stratagies as well as resources direct to specific areas.
  7. 7Evaluation of Official Statistics.-Police recorded crimes only include notable crimes.
    -Suggested that many crimes go unreported, so-called "dark figure"
    -Farrington and Dowds found that police in Nottinghamshire were more likely han any other region to report burgalries of under £10.
  8. 8Victim Surveys.Victim surveys record people's experiences of crime. The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) documents crimes that have occurred in the past year from the POV of the victim. A representative sample of addresses is chosen (for 2015/16 it will be 50,000 houses). In 2009 a seperate survey was introduced to document victims aged 10-15.
  9. 9Evaluation of Victim Surveys.-There are issues with the use of self-report measures. Some may be reluctant to report the crime, may be unaware of being a victim or lie.
    -Updated annually to keep up-to-date trends and catalogue new crimes.
  10. 10Offender Surveys.Individuals volunteer details about the number of crimes they have committed. The Offender Crime and Justice Survey (OCJS). OCJS looked at indicators of repreat offending, trends in reoffending, drug and alcohol use and the role of co-offenders.
  11. 11Evaluation of Offender Surveys.-Issues with self-report methods. Offenders may conceal to protect or hide, or boast about previous crimes.
    -Can give a good picture about reasons behind offending. Also, means recidivism can be reduced.
  12. 12Offender Profiling.Characteristics of an offender can be deduced from the offence and crime scene. The aim is to narrow the field of inquiry to better the investigation. There are 2 main types of offender profiling: top-down approach and bottom-down approach.
  13. 13Top-Down Approach.Originating in theUSA by the FBI it draws upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers. Profilers who use this method will match what is known about the offender to a pre-existing template. Murderers or rapists are classified on 2 categories: organised and unorganised.
  14. 14What are Organised and Disorganised Offenders.The distinction between the two is based on the idea that serious offenders have a particular way of working, and that these generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics.
  15. 15Organised Offenders.-Shows evidence of planning.
    -Victim is deliberately targeted.
    -High level of control during the crime.
    -Little evidence or clues left behind.
    -Above-average intelligence.
    -Usually married and may have kids.
  16. 16Disorganised Offenders.-Little evidence of planning.
    -Crime scene tends to reflect the impulsiveness.
    -Lower than average IQ
    -Lives alone and often relatively close to where the offence to place.
  17. 174 Stages of Constructing a Top-Down Profile.-Information is gathered from the crime scene and other sources.
    -A decision is made regarding whether or the criminal is organised or disorganised.
    -Hypotheses are generated.
    -A rough profile is generated of the criminal.
  18. 18Evaluation of the Top-Down Approach.-Can only apply to rape and murder.
    -Very simplistic, affecting accuracy.
    -Could be said sample is too small and unrepresentative.
    -Could be seen as more intuitive, relying on the expertise of the profiler.
  19. 19Bottom-Up ApproachThis approach aims to create a profile via a systematic analysis of evidence. The profile is data driven and the approach is more grounded in psychological theory. It makes use of the smallest space analysis (a computer programme that identifies correlations.) Part of the bottom-up approach is investigative psychology.
  20. 20Investigative psychology. (Bottom-Up Approach)Attempts to apply statistical procedure with psychological theory to the crime scene, in order to establish patterns of behaviour. This develops a statistical database and offences or related offences can be matched against this to reveal details about the offenders.
  21. 21Interpersonal Coherence. (Bottom-Up Approach)Central to the bottom-up approach. This is the way the offender behaves at the crime scene, including how they interact with the victim, and how this can reveal behavioural characteristics.
  22. 22The Significance of Time and Place. (Bottom-Up Approach)Time and place can indicate where the offender is living (see geographical profiling)
  23. 23Forensic Awareness. (Bottom-Up Approach)Describes individuals have been the subject of police interrogations in the past; may suggest something to their mindfulness of covering their tracks.
  24. 24Supporting Evidence for Investigative Psychology.Canter and Heritage: content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases, data examined using smallest-space analysis and several characteristics were identified as common in most cases. Characteristics will occur in different patterns depending on individual and can show how an offender's behaviours can change.
  25. 25Geographical Profiling.A technique that uses information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to pinpoint the offender's home or base.
  26. 26How Geographical Profiling Works.The assumption being that serial offender will restrict their 'work' to an area they are familiar with. Understanding this provides a 'center of gravity', where it is likey to contain the offenders house. Also it can let the investigator make guess as to where they will strike next.
  27. 27Canter and Larkins circle theory.Canter and Larkin proposed 2 models of offender behaviour, the commuter and the marauder.Canter and Larkins circle theory.
  28. 28Usefullness of Geographical Profiling.Gives an insight into the nature of the offence, i.e. whether it was planned on spontaneouse. It also gives us an idea of what the offender is like, such as their mental maps, mode of transport, employment status, approximate age ect.
  29. 29Supporting Evidence for Geographical Profiling.Lundrigan and Canter: collated info from 120 serial murder cases. Using smallest-space analysis the location of each body disposal site was in a different direction from the last create a centre of gravity. This was more noticeable in those who travelled a short distance.
  30. 30Evaluation of the Bottom-up Approach.Scientific- Can be seen as more objective and scientific.
    Wider Application- Can be applied to wider range of crimes (burglary and murder eg.).
    Mixed results- Has been significant failures (Rachel Nickells case). Copson reviewed 48 police forces and fudn that while the profiler was usefull in 13% of cases in only 3% did it lead to correct id.
  31. 31The Atavistic Form.An early biological explanation proposed by Lombroso. No longer seen as credible but credited for moving criminology into objective ideas. Theory suggested criminal were genetic throwbacks lacking evolutionary developement. Argued criminals could therefore not be blamed for their actions.
  32. 32What does Atavistic From look like?Theory centers around ciminals having distiguishing features; narrow sloping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheek bones, facial asymetry, dark skin
  33. 33Lombroso's Research.Lombroso examined the cranial and facial features of Italian convicts (3839 living and 383 dead) and concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic from.
  34. 34Evaluation of the Atavistic Form.Contributions- led to more scientific and credible view of crime.
    Contradictory evidence- Goring compared 3000 criminals to non-criminals and found no differenced.
    Methodological issues- Lombroso did not compare his criminals with non-criminals.
  35. 35The Genetic Explanation to Offending.Su
  36. 36The Genetic Explanation to Offending and Twin Studies.Christiansen: Sample of 3586 twin pairs, found a concordance rate of 33% in Mz twins and 12% in DZ for offending.
    Raine: Reviewed 13 twin studies and found an overall concordance of 52% for MZ twins and 21% for DZ in offending behaviour.
  37. 37Problems with Twin Studies.Could be argued that the different concordance rates are due to differences in the environment, not biological inheritance.
  38. 38The Genetic Explanation to Offending and Candidate Genes.Tihonen et al- Genetic analysis of ~900 offenders revealed abnormalities in MAOA (aggressive behaviour- the warrior gene) and CDH13 (linked to substance misuse and attention deficiet.) Individuals with this combo 13X more likely
  39. 39Neural Explanations to Offending.Suggests there may be neural differenced in the brains of criminals and non-criminals. Much of the evidence in the area is concerned with anti-social personality disorder (APD). APD is associated with reduced emotional response and a lack of empathy.
  40. 40Neural Explanations to Offending and the Prefrontal Cortex and Other Areas of the Brain.The Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) and limbic system are areas that regulate emotions. Raine- sample of 41 violent and 41 non-violent murdered underwent PET scanning. Differences found in brain activity in the PFC and areas of the limbic system including the amygdala. These are areas that regulate emotions it is suggested there could be a link with agressive/violent behaviour.
  41. 41Neural Explanations to Offending and Biochemistry.Serotonin regulates mood and impulse control, this means in low levels it could lead to impulsive criminal behaviour.
    Davidson et al found that violent criminals had lower levels of serotonin to non-violent criminals.
  42. 42Evaluation of Genetic and Neural Explanations.Research issues- Often small samples. Scanning techniques can be costly. Effects generalisability.
    Causations- Not possible to conclude whether or not abnormalities are caused by biology or early abuse.
    Reductionism- Can be seen as overly simplistic.
  43. 43Support for the Diathesis-Stress Model of Crime.Mednick et al- 13000 adoptees analysed, when neither biological or adopted parents and convictions, % of adoptees that did was 13.5%, when either of the biological did have a conviction this rose to 20%, when both biological and adopted parents had convictions it rose to 24.5%.
  44. 44Eysencks Theory of the Criminal Personality.Suggested that there are 3 traits which make up an individual, and the extent you have each of them makes your personality.Eysencks Theory of the Criminal Personality.
  45. 45Extroversion. (E)An extrovert is one who scores high on thsis scale and are scociable, impulsive, expressive and risk taking. On the other end of the scale is the introcert, who prefers their own company, and are more cautious.
  46. 46Neuroticism. (N)Those who score high on the N scale will exhibit nervousness, anxiety and obsessiveness. On the other end of the scale are those described as "stable" and would have a calm demeanour and a carefree attitude.
  47. 47Psychoticism. (P)Someone who measures high on the P scale would be insensitive, unemotional and lack a conscience.
  48. 48Biological Basis for the Theory.Though the thoery is psychological he does argue that there is a biological basis and that they are innate. This could mean that for certain individuals it could be more likely to develop a criminal personality.
  49. 49Biological basis for Extroversion and Neuroticism.Extroversion: Low levels of arousal in the brain mean extroverts seek excitement and stimulation from the environment.
    Neuroticism: Some people react swiftly and strongly to stress physiologically. Those who are high in neuroticism would react quickly and to a greater degree.
  50. 50Eysenck's Theory applied to Criminal Behaviour.High E: sensation seekers who get a thrill from committing a crime.
    High N: High levels of emotions, more likely to commit a crime in an emotionally charged situation.
    High P: More likely to commit a crime as they are agressive and lack conscience.
  51. 51Evidence Supporting Eysencks Theory.Eysenck- compared 2070 male prisoners scores on the EPQ with 2422 male controls divided into age groups between 16-69 years. On measures of P, N & E- across all age groups- prisoners recorded higher scores than the control group.
  52. 52Evidence Criticising Eysenck's Theory.Farrington et al- reviewed several studies and found that offenders tended to score higher on P measures but not E & N. Does not fully support. There is also very little evidence that extroverts and introverts have different levels of arousal.
  53. 53Evaluation of Eysenck's Criminal Personality Theory.Problems with EPQ- Relies on self-report methods, subject to response bias and the participant's mood.
    Application: Can be used to distiguish possible offenders from an early age.
    Cultural Bias: Bartol & Holanchock found African Americans and Hispanics tended to have lower E levels.
  54. 54Kholbergs Theory of Moral Developement.(Cognitive theory) Kohlberg proposed a stage based theory based on people's answers to a series of moral dilemmas. The higher the stage the more sophisticated. Kholberg suggests crimes are more likely to occur at the lower end.
  55. 55Kohlberg's Moral Developement Stages.Kohlberg's Moral Developement Stages.
  56. 56Supporting Evidence for Kohlberg's theory.Kohlberg et al- found that violent young offenders scored significantly lower on the scale, even after controlling for backgrounds.
    Chandler- findings suggest that offenders are more egocentric and display poorer social perspective skills.
    Palmer and Hollin- found that delinquent groups showed less maturity in terms of moral reasoning.
  57. 57Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory.Applications- can be useful in intervention and treatment.
    Individual differences- can account for some extent individual differences, however, there are a wide variety of crimes and its unlikely to be the same reasoning.
    Criticisms- possible that lower moral reasoning is a consequence not a cause.
  58. 58Cognitive Distortions.Suggests that criminal behaviour is the result of faulty information processing, Cognitive distortions are errors or biases in people's information processing systems and has been linked to the way in which criminals interpret other people's actions and justify their own.
  59. 59Hostile Attribution Bias. (HAB)The tendency to misinterpret the actions of others for being more confrontational than they are. Research suggests a link between HAB and aggression and violence. This therefore 'blames' an individuals offending behaviour onto an external factor.
  60. 60Supporting Evidence for HAB. (Schonenberg and Justye)A sample of 55 violent offenders matched with a control group of non-aggressive participants. Shown a series of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Violent offenders significantly more likely to perceive them as aggressive.
  61. 61Supporting Evidence for HAB. (Crick and Dodge)Found a relationship between HAB and aggression in children and adolescents. A hypothetical situation used to test but also showed true in genuine situations. HAB regarded as a precursor for aggressive behaviour in children, adolescents and adults.
  62. 62Evaluation of HAB.Use of hypothetical situations to measure HAB mean answer given may not be true to real life. Possible that individuals score low on HAB but may perceive real people and more hostile. Therefore can be said to lack ecological validity. Also, lacks predictive as it is difficult to make predictions about why people engage violently.
  63. 63Minimalization.When an offender downplays or denies the seriousness of the offence committed. Including downplaying effects, rationalising or trivialising the crime. Barbaree found that of 26 convicted rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence and 40% minimised the harm they caused.
  64. 64Supporting Evidence for Minimalisation.Barbaree- found that of 26 convicted rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence and 40% minimised the harm they caused.
    Hasmall- found 35% of a sample of child molesters argued they had not committed a sexual act and 36% stated the victim had consented.
  65. 65Evaluation of Minimalisation.Descriptive not explanatory- describes how an offender may have a distorted view but no why they offend.
    Relevant to certain crimes more- evidence suggests that minimalisation may be more relevant to certain crimes, e.g. sexual offenders.
  66. 66Sutherlands Differential Association Theory (DAT).Sutherland proposed that criminal behaviour is learnt. Suggesting that and individual learns the values attitudes motives and techniques for criminal behaviour through associations and interaction with significant others. If an individual is exposed to more pro-crime values and attiudes they will go on to offend.
  67. 67Application of DAT.The theory suggests that it is possible to predict how likely it is that an individual will offend if we have knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration of which they have been exposed to pro-crime attitudes. It is also suggested that individuals learn how to commit in these interactions.
  68. 68Evaluation of DAT.Explanation for prevalence- Explains offending in different sectors of society. Not successful in explaining individualistic crimes.
    Negative implications- danger that it can create stereotypes.
    Free will vs. determinism- Links with environmental determinism & does not consider free will.
    Difficult to test.
  69. 69The Superego.Superego is the morality principle and acts as a conscience. A healthy superego is like a kind but firm internal parent, someone with a healthy superego will feel guilt for behaving badly. Black burn suggested that there are 3 types of inadequate superego; weak, deviant or over-harsh superego.
  70. 70The Weak Superego.If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage then the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego. This leaves the individual to be dominated by ID impulses and leads to immoral criminal behaviour.
  71. 71The Deviant Superego.If the superego that the child has internalised has immoral or deviant values this woudl lead to offending behaviour. (e.g. a boy that is raised by a criminal father is not likely to experience guilt for wrong doings.)
  72. 72The Over-harsh Superego.The individual is crippled with guilt and anxiety, this may unonsciously drive the individual to commit crimes in order to get caught and be punished to satisy the superegos overwhelming need for punsihment.
  73. 73Evaluation of the Inadequate Superego Explanation.Gender bias- According to Freud women develop weaker super egos than boys, which is not supported by evidence or stats, meaning there could be an alpha bias.
    Lack of evidence- limits validity, lacks falsifiability, explanation is flawed.
  74. 74Challenging/Alternative Evidence and Theories.Very little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding.
    Deviant superego could be influenced by genetics or socialisation rather than formation of superego.
    More plausible that those with and over-harsh superego would be less likely to offend.
  75. 75Bowlbys Theory of Maternal Depreivation.Individuals with prolonged mother deprivation before 2 1/2 (but up to 5 years) are at risk of developing serious disorders such as affectionless psychopathy.
  76. 76Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study.Studied 88 children, 44 referred to child guidance clinic for stealing other half control. Bowlby diagnosed 16/44 of the thieves as affectionless psychopaths and none of the control group. 86% of the 16 had undergone maternal deprivation, 4% of the control group had also.
  77. 77Bowlby's Theory in Relation to Crime.Bowlby suggested that failing to establish a maternal bond could lead to a number of damaging irreversible consequences in later life, such as affectionless psychopathy.
    Affectionless Psychopathy is characterised by a lack of guilt empathy and feelings.
  78. 78Challenging Evidence to Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation.Lewis- analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a predictor of future offending.
  79. 79Evaluation of Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation.Applications- highlights the importance of children forming emotional attachments. Can help improve social work.
    Causation- Does not necessarily indicate a causal link between deprivation and delinquency. Could be a number of reasons, limiting the extent to which we can sue this theory.
  80. 80Recidivism.a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour; especially relapse into criminal behaviour.
  81. 81The Aims of Custodial Sentencing.Custidial scentencing involves a convicted offender spending time in prison, young offenders institution or psychiatric institution. There are 4 main reasons for this; deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitation.
  82. 82Deterrence.The unpleasant experience is designed to, on a general scale; send a broad message to society that criminal behaviour will nto be tolerated, and and individual scale; that repeating the same crime will invole going back to prison. Deterrence is based on behaviourist principles of conditioning.
  83. 83Incapacitation.The offender is taken out of society to protect the public. Meaning they no longer pose a threat to society.
  84. 84Retribution.Offenders should pay for their crimes. Putting them in prison means they are suffering the consequences which is ultimately their loss of freedom.
  85. 85Rehabilitation.Prisons should provide opportunities to develope skills and training or to access treatment programmes for problems such as drug abuse as well as give the offender a chance to reflect on their behaviour. Offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to be an effective member of society.
  86. 86Arguments for and Against the Effectiveness of Rehabilitation.For- Training will increase employability. Anger managment and social skills training may give

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A level Psychology (paper 3) Flashcards on Forensic Psychology , created by Oliver Philpott on 10/04/2017.
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