Flashcards
research methods PSYCHOLOGY UNIT A2
Cards in this deck (82)
- 1case studies - definitionan in-depth investigation, description and anaylsis of a single individual, group, institution or event
-usually qualitative data
-usually longitudinal - 2case studies - strengths-offer rich insight that may shed light on very obscure forms of behaviour
-may be preferred over a questionnaire that may be considered superficial
-contribute to our understanding of 'normal' functioning i.e. HM helped knowledge of separate memory stores
-may generate hypotheses for future study - 3case studies - limitations-cannot generalise findings
-information that reaches the final report is chosen subjectively by researcher
-personal accounts taken from family and friends may be prone to memory decay/bias
-evidence lacks validity - 4content analysis - definitiona research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce e.g. texts, emails, films etc
-the aim is to summarise this communication in a systematic way so it can later be analysed - 5content analysis - coding and quantitative date-coding is the initial stage
-categorises the data into MEANINGFUL units
-e.g. counting the number of times a particular word occurs
-e.g. analysing newspaper reports for derogatory terms of mental illness, may count the no of times "crazy" occurs - 6content analysis - thematic analysis and qualitative data-content analysis may qualitative data, where thematic analysis is necessary
-themes are identified, explicit or implicit, if they are recurring e.g. 'a drain on resources of the NHS'
-themes likely to be descriptive more than anything coded
-these themes may then be identified as broader categories e.g. 'treatment'
-once researcher is happy the themes cover all of the content they collect a new set of data to test validity of themes
-then write up final report using quotes from each theme - 7content analysis - strengths-much of the material being studied such as TV adverts and films are already in the public domain = no issues obtaining consent = avoids ethical issues
-communication of a sensitive nature used such as text conversations have high external validity
-flexible as can produce both qualitative and quantitative data - 8content analysis - limitations-people studies indirectly = material is analysed out of its original context = danger researched attributes own opinions to the writer
-may suffer lack of objectivity - 9reliability - definition-a measure of consistency
-considered reliable if consistent results are produced every time they are REPEATED - 10ways of assessing reliability - test-retest-administering the same test/questionnaire to the same people on different occasions
-if the results are the same/very similar then the test is reliable
-most common in questionnaires and psychological tests but can also be used for interviews
-must be significant time between test and retest
-two score tests are correlated and correlation coefficient must be +.8 to be judged reliable - 11ways of testing reliability - inter-observer reliability-used in observational research
-attempts to remove subjectivity
-may use a pilot study to check observers are using appropriate behavioural categories, create them seperately and then compare
-observers (usually 2) watch the same event but record data independently
-data then correlated looking for a +.8 coefficient
-may also be used for inter-rater reliability (content analysis) and inter-interviewer reliability (interviews) - 12improving reliability - questionnaires-reliability measured using test-retest
-should exceed +.80 correlation
-questionnaire that found not reliable may have parts rewritten if ambiguous
-open questions may be replaced with closed, fixed alternatives - 13improving reliability - interviews-use same interviewer each time
-if not, all interviewers properly trained
-structured interviews more useful as interviewers behaviour is controlled by fixed questions
-unstructured interviews less likely to be reliable - 14improving reliability - experiments-lab experiments seen as most reliable
-strict control over method and execution allows for precise replication
-this shows reliability when findings are repeatable
-may be affected if PPTs are tested under slightly different conditions each time - 15improving reliability - observations-improved by making sure behavioural categories are properly operationalised
-and are measurable and self-evident
-categories should not overlap
-all possible behaviours should be covered
-if not done, the researcher may attribute their own judgments on results - 16validity - definition-the extent to which an observed effect is genuine
-does it measure what it intended to measure? (internal validity)
-the extent to which it can be generalised beyond research settings (external validity) - 17internal validity-if the effects observed are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not another factor
-demand characteristics and lack of control threaten this - 18external validity - ecological validity-if the results can be generalised to different people, places, settings
-low mundane realism = low ecological validity - 19external validity - temporal validity-if findings or theories hold true over time
- 20assessment of validity - face validity-whether a test measures what it is supposed to
-determined by 'eyeballing' or passing to an expert to check - 21assessment of validity - concurrent validity-if the results of a particular test/scale match that of another recognised and established test
-e.g. new intelligence test may be administered to PPTs where their IQ scores are compared to another established test such as the standord-binet test
-when correlated if they exceed +.80 - 22improving validity - experimental research-using a control group
-standardise procedure = reduces investigator effects
-single blind and double blind procedures = reduces investigator effects - 23improving validity - questionnaires-may incorporate a lie scale within questions in order to assess consistency of response and control effect of social desirability bias
-may also enhance validity to ensure PPTs know they remain anonymous - 24improving validity - observations-improved in covert observations as behaviour more likely to be authentic
-improved by making sure behavioural categories are not overlapping or ambiguous - 25improving validity - qualitative methods-usually thought to have higher ecological validity than quantitative methods
-depth and detail associated with case studies and interviews
-researcher may have to prove the interpretive validity (shows their interpretation of events matches the PPTs)
-can be shown using direct quotes within report and coherence of reporting
-also improve validity through triangulation (use of a number of diff sources as evidence e.g. observations - 26choosing a statistical test - Carrots Should Come Mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes-chi-squared, sign test, chi-squared
-mann-whitney, wilcoxon, spearman's rho
-unrelated t test, related t test, pearson's r - 27examples of related design-repeated measures
-matched pairs - 28examples of unrelated design-independent groups
- 29levels of measurement and definitions-nominal data=categorical data, discrete as can only appear in one category
-ordinal data=rated/ordered in some way, scale, lack precision because subjective, 'unsafe', not used rawly in tests
-interval data=based on numerical scales, precisely defined by size and equality, e.g. time, temperature - 30significance level >0.05-there is a 5% chance that these results occurred by chance
- 31use a one-tailed test when..-your hypothesis was directional
- 32use a two-tailed test when..-your hypothesis was non-directional
- 33N=-number of participants in the study
- 34type 1 error - definition-when alternative hypothesis is accepted
-but null SHOULD have been accepted
-"error of the optimists"
-claims there is a significant difference/correlation when there is not
-more likely if the significance level is too lenient e.g. 10% - 35type 2 error - definition-when null hypothesis is accepted
-but alternative hypothesis SHOULD be accepted
-"error of the pessimists"
-claims there is no difference/correlation where in fact there is
-more likely if the significance level is too STRINGENT e.g 1% - 36sections of a scientific report - abstract-summary including all major elements
-aim, hyp, method, results, conclusion
-important to determine if investigations are worth further examination - 37sections of a scientific report - introduction-literature review
-details relevant theories, concepts and studies
-should follow a logical progression
-begins broadly and gradually becomes more specific until aims and hyp are given - 38sections of a scientific report - method-split into
-design, which was used and why
-sample, info related to people used, how many, demograpic, and sampling method
-apparatus/materials, relevant instruments used
-procedure, everything that happened, briefing, standardised instructions, debriefing
-ethics, how they were addressed - 39sections of a scientific report - results-summarise key findings
-features descriptive statistics
-inferential statistics, choice of stats test, calulated value, critical value
-raw data
-if used quantitative methods, analysis of themes and/or categories - 40sections of a scientific report - discussion-summarise findings in verbal form
-discussed in context of evidence
-discuss limitations of investigation
-wider implications considered
-how did it contribute to the existing knowledge in this field - 41features of science - paradigm-a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
- 42features of science - paradigm shift-the results of a scientific revolution, significant change in the dominant theory within a scientific discipline
-example= shift towards Einstein's theory of relativity - 43features of science - theory construction and hypothesis testing-essential component of a theory is that it can be scientifically tested
-can be tested using systematic and objective methods to determine whether it is supported or refuted
-if supported the theory will be strengthened
-if refuted the theory needs revising
-known as "deduction" - 44falsifiability - definition-the principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proves untrue
-done so using hypothesis testing
-those surviving attempts to falsify become the strongest - 45features of science - replicability-the extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
-if it is 'trusted' it must be repeatable
-determines the reliability
-findings can be generalised - 46features of science - objectivity-when all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process
-greatest level achieved in lab experiments - 47features of science - the empirical method-scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
-knowledge determined only by experience and sensory perception
-theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it have been empirically tested and verified - 48pilot study and aims-small scale trial run of a study
-tests aspects of the design
-looks to make improvements - 49repeated measures design - limitations and how to deal with them-limitations=ORDER EFFECTS, may guess the aim of the experiment
-limitations=PRACTICE EFFECT, PPTs may do better in the second condition as they practised in the first
-deal with=COUNTERBALANCING, use one condition AB and other condition BA
-deal with=may also use two different rests to reduce practise effects - 50independent groups design - limitations and how to deal with them-limitations=cannot control participant variables
-limitations=needs more PPTs
-deal with=randomly allocate PPTs which will distribute PPT variables evenly - 51matched pairs design - limitations and how to deal with them-limitations=time consuming to match
-limitations=not possible to control all participant variables
-deal with=restrict the number of variables to match on to make it easier - 52demand characteristics-PPTs pay attention to cues within the experiment (NOT from investigator) which may guide them to specific behaviour
-may guess aim of the study and try help fulfill the hypothesis - 53investigator effects-any cues from the investigator that encourage certain behaviours in the participant
-leads to fulfillment of the investigators hypothesis - 54single blind study-participant is not aware of the research aims and of which condition they are in
-prevents PPTs seeking cues about the aims and reacting to them
-reduces demand characteristics - 55double blind design-both participant and person conducting the experiment are 'blind'
-reduces investigator effects and demand characteristics - 56experimental realism-if the researcher makes an experimental task engaging enough that the PPT pays attention to the task and not the fact they are being observed
- 57extraneous variables - participant variables-any characteristic of PPT
-only extraneous variable if independent groups design is used
-e.g. age, intelligence, gender etc - 58extraneous variables - situational variables-features of a research situation that may influence PPTs behaviour
-e.g. order effects
-only confounding if they vary systematically with the IV e.g. all members of cond 1 tested in morning and all members of cond 2 tested in afternoon - 59opportunity sample - strengths and limitations-recuit people most convenient
-easiest method so saves money and time
-inevitably biased because drawn from small part of population - 60random sample - strengths and limitations-lottery method and random number table and random number generators
-unbiased as all members have equal chance of winning
-need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact them = time consuming - 61stratified sample - strengths and limitations-subgroups within a population identified and PPTs obtained from each strata in proportion to their occurrence in the population
-likely to be more representative because it is proportional
-very time consuming - 62systematic sample - strengths and limitations-uses predetermined system to select PPTs such as every 6th person from a list
-unbiased as objective system
-not truly random unless you select a nth number using a random method to start with - 63volunteer sample - strengths and limitations-advertise in a newspaper or noticeboard
-gives access to variety of PPTs
-biased as PPTs likely to be highly motivated and with extra time or needing extra money
-volunteer bias - 64ethical issues-informed consent
-deception
-right to withdraw
-confidentiality
-privacy - 65dealing with ethical issues - ethical guidelines (code of conduct)-BPS tells psychologists what is and is not acceptable and how to deal with ethical dilhemmas
- 66dealing with ethical issues - cost-benefit analysis-benefits judged on how it can improve the lives of society
-costs judged on how individuals may be harmed in the process
-if benefits outweigh the costs it is deemed ethical - 67dealing with ethical issues - ethics committees-most institutions have a committee which must approve any study before it begins
-looks at all possible ethical issues and how the researcher may deal with them - 68dealing with ethical issues - punishment-if psychologist does not have an ethical manner then BPS may bar the person from practicing as a psychologist
- 69non-participant observation-the observer is separate from the participants
- 70participant observation-observations are made by someone who is also participating in the activity
-may affect their objectivity - 71structured observations - event sampling-counting the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs in individuals over a certain period
-e.g. number of times they smile in a 10-minute period - 72structured observations - time sampling-recording behaviours in a given time
-e.g. noting what the individual does every 30 seconds
-at that time the observer may tick one of more categories from a checklist - 73measures of central tendency-mean
-median
-mode - 74measures of dispersion-range
-standard deviation - 75data distribution-normal distribution
-skewed distribution
-positive skew=peak on left
-negative skew=peak on right - 76sign test - how to-work out the difference between two variables
-create 'sign' column where positive or negative integer is calculated
-add up number of + and - and take the smallest amount as calculated value - 77peer review - process-experts in the same field as the research analyse its content
-usually a number of reviewers for each application
-their views are then considered by a review panel
-task is to report on quality of research - 78peer review - main purposes-allocation of research funding, organisations investing must do so responsibly
-publication of research, any faulty data entering public domain may lead to more faulty info based around it
-assessing the research ratings of unis, all unis conduct research which is assessed in quality, funding depends on receiving good ratings from peer review - 79peer review - publication bias-journals tend to publish positive results
-misperception of truth - 80peer review - preserving the status quo-peer review results are in preference for research that agrees with existing theory rather than dissenting work
-biased - 81peer review - cannot deal with already published work-once a study is published the results remain public whether found fraudulent or not
-peer review does not ensure all data we are exposed to is valid - 82economic psychology - the framing effect-the language that facts are presenting with have an effect on outcome
-i.e. 400/1000 will 'die' versus 600/1000 will be 'saved' has an effect on PPTs opinion of the situation
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- A level Psychology Flashcards on research methods PSYCHOLOGY UNIT A2, created by Ellen Downey on 10/06/2017.
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