AS Level Psychology : Stress

AS Level Psychology : Stress

1. Stress

   • A state of psychological or physiological strain caused by unpleasant stimuli. There is a mismatch between the perceived demands of the situation and the individuals inability to cope.
     • Stressor
       • Any stimulus that produces a stress response in a person, stressors are not objective as they do not produce the same response people.

2. Body's Response to Stress

   • Chronic - Long Term
     • Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) System. PAC
       • Hypothalamus releases CRF which travels to the pituitary gland.
         • Secretes ACTH, this travels to the adrenal cortex.
           • Activates the release of hormones like cortisol, this is flushed through the body.
   • Acute - Short Term
     • The Sympathetic Medullary System. SAM
       • Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic branch of nervous system
         • Adrenal medulla secretes Adrenalin. This get body ready for fight or flight response, increased heart rate.
           • Adrenaline leads to the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and reduced activity in the parasympathetic nervous system.
             • Adrenaline creates changes in the body such as decreases (in digestion) and increases (sweating, increased pulse and blood pressure).
           • Once the ‘threat’ is over the parasympathetic branch takes control and brings the body back into a balanced state.

3. Stress Related Illness and the Immune System

   • The Immune System
     • When antigens are present the response is to send white blood cells to destroy them
       • White blood cells are non-specific killers, they are an important defense against cancer cells and viruses - non specific immunity.
         • Lymphocytes are cells that produce antibodies. B cell lymphocytes grow in bone marrow, T cell grow in thymus gland - specific immunity
           • Specific antibodies produced to attack specific antigens.
   • Stress and Immune System
     • High levels of cortisol can shrink the thymus gland, preventing growth of T cells so specific immunity cannot be produced.
       • More vulnerable to infection or disease - Immunosuppression
       • GERRA ET AL: Found lower immune activity in those individuals who were recently bereaved compared to a match control group
   • Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1984
     • The effects of stress on the immune system. Stress of important exams effecting the functioning of the immune system
       • Procedures: Natural experiment, 75 med students. Blood samples taken month before 1st exam (low stress) and during exam period (high stress).
         • Immune system accessed measuring T cell activity in the blood samples. Questionnaire on psychological vulnerability.
       • Findings: T cell activity was significantly reduced in second blood sample compared to first. It was most reduced in those P's who reported to have high life events and loneliness.
         • - Used med students (special group), questions validity if findings can be generalised. + Results are inline with other research
     • Cohen et al. 1993
       • General life stress on vulnerability to the common cold. Used a quasi (natural) experiment.
         • 394 pp's completed questionnaires on the number of stressful life events they had experienced in the previous year, how stressed they felt and experience with negative emotions.
           • Scores combined into a stress index. Pps exposed to low doses of the common cold virus.
             • 82% of pps became infected with the virus. The chance of developing a cold was found to be significantly correlated with stress index scores.
               • + High ecological validity. - No direct manipulation of IV, pps required to be retrospective and there may be inaccuracies. Cannot establish cause and effect

4. Life Changes as Source of Stress

   • Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
     • Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed a questionnaire called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) for identifying major stressful life events. Each life event is given a score to indicate how stressful it is.
       • If our normal routines are disrupted we have to think about how to do things that we normally do on autopilot. This means we have more mental energy 'psychic energy'.
         • Bigger the change, the more adjustment needs to be made so more energy is needed.
           • Rahe et al. 1970
             • To find out if scores on the SRRS correlated significantly with the subsequent onset of illness.
               • 2500 Male American sailors were given the SRRS to see their LCU (life scale unit) over the previous 6 months.
                 • Over following 6 month tour detailed records kept on health of sailors. Life change correlated with illness scores.
               • There was a positive correlation of +0.118 between life changes and illness. Small but significant so relationship was found.
                 • Life events can not be the only factor which has contributed to illness.
                   • + Large sample size. - Androcentric, only males lovwers generalisability, includes positive and negative events (some may end up with same score but one with eustress), LCU is not onjective.
     • Evaluating Research into Life Events and Stress
       • SRRS: Only has 43 Life Events, does not include daily stresses and stressors like jobs vary dramatically.
         • Holmes and Rahe research culturally specific (ethnocentric), societies may find different things stressful. Cannot be generalised
           • Easy use of scale, is easily applicable for anybody to use.
             • Subjective, people may interpret life changes/events differently as its based on our own perception. Lacks objectivity.

5. Daily Hassles as Source of Stress

   • Daily Hassles: Minor life events that arise throughout the course of the day which cause stress. Daily Uplifts: Small positive experience that counteracts stress
     • BOUTEYRE ET AL: Investigate relationship between daily hassles and mental health of students during transition between school and university.
       • First Year psychology students completed the hassles and uplifts scale and the Becks Depression Inventory to measure depression.
         • Found a positive correlation between students suffering from depression and scores on the daily hassles. Transition has frequent daily hassles which are a risk factor of causing depression.
           • Accumulation Effect - Creates persistent irritations, frustrations and overloads which results in more serious stress reactions such as anxiety and depression.
             • Amplification Effect - Chronic stress caused by negative life events may deplete a persons resources, making them more vulnerable to the influences of daily hassles.

6. Workplace Stress

   • Workload
     • Giving staff too much work can make them stressed because they become frustrated (when they can’t complete it).
       • This can be quantitative, where people feel that they have too much to do or are expected to do it too quickly, or qualitative, when they find their work too difficult.
     • Control
       • Research has shown that lack of control at work can lead to stress. For example, no control over deadlines. People may not no control over their pace of work – e.g. if working on a production line.
         • Johansson et al. 1978
           • Low risk group - cleaners, work was varied, self paced and allowed more interaction with other workers.
             • High risk group - 14 Swedish saw mill finishers, work was isolated, machine paced and highly skilled yet repetitive. The wage of the whole factory depended upon how good they did.
             • Levels of stress related hormones in the urine were tested on work days and rest days, records kept for illness and absenteeism.
               • Findings: High risk group, secreted more stress hormone on work days than on rest days and were higher than cleaners. Also had significantly higher levels of stress related illness and sick days than low risk group.
                 • - Individual differences are not controlled (Type A or B personalities), doesn't identify which aspect of the work is stressful.
         • Marmot et al. 1997
           • Relationship between control in the workplace and risk of developing CHD.
             • Measured job control and coronary symptoms in 7372 civil servants in longitudinal study lasting years.
               • Found a positive negative association between control and illness. PPs with the least control had a 1.5 to 2.2x inflated risk of CHD symptoms, compared with those with the highest control.
                 • Lack of control = increased stress, leading it higher risk of illness

7. Personality and Stress

   • Some people more vulnerable to the ill effects of stress while others are more resistant.
     • Type A Personality
       • Incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time.
         • FRIEDMAN AND ROSENMAN: Type A consisted of three major characteristics, 1) Competitiveness and achievement striving, 2) Impatience and time urgency 3) Hostility and aggressiveness
           • Likely to have fight or flight responses set off by things in the environment. More likely to have stress hormones present, which over a long period of time leads to a range of stress related illnesses including raised blood pressure and CHD
           • Evaluation of Type A Personality
             • Western Collaborative group study: 3000 men aged 39 to 59, living in California examined for signs of CHD and personalities assessed using a structured interview, which provoked type A behaviour
               • After 8 1/2 years, twice as many Type A PPs had died of cardiovascular problems. Over 12% of the Type A personality pps had experienced a heart attack, compared to just 6% type Bs.
                 • Type A had higher blood pressure and hugher cholestrol. They were also more likely to smoke and have a family history of CHD, both would increase their risk.
             • RAGLAND AND BRAND: Follow up study of the Western Collaborative Group pps, 22 years later. Found that 214(approx 15%) of men had died of CHD.
               • Confirmed risk factors but little evidence of relationship between type A and mortality.
               • MYREK: Meta analysis of 35 studies , found association between CHD and a component of Type personality (hostility). Other than this no evidence of association.
     • Type B Personality
       • Lacks in characteristics of Type A. Type B people tend to be more relaxed, patient easygoing and therefore less vulnerable to stress-related illness
     • Hardiness
       • Type A's appear to be resistant to CHD.
         • KOBASA AND MADDI: Some people are more psychologically hardy than others.Includes a range of characteristics which if present, provides defense against the negative effects of stress.
           • 1) Control, hardy people see themselves as being in control of their lives.
           • 2) Commitment, hardy people are involved with the world around them and have a strong sense of purpose.
           • 3) Hardy people see life challenges as problems to be overcome rather than as threats. They enjoy change as an opportunity for development.
             • Evaluation of Hardiness
               • KOBASA: 800 business executives assessing stress using SRRS. Approx 150 classified as high stress, of these some had a low illness record.
                 • This suggests that something else was causing their stress because individuals experiencing the same stress levels had higher illness records. Hardy personality encourages reliance.
                   • High stress/low illness individuals scored high on all three characteristics.
                     • MADDI: Studied employees of US company which over a year dramatically reduced its workforce. 2/3 of employees suffered stress related health problems. The thriving 1/3 showed more evidence of hardiness attributes.

Images and files in the map