UNIT 3 AOS 2

UNIT 3 AOS 2

1. Neural basis of learning and memory

   • Neural plasticity
     • the ability of the brains structure or functions to be changed in response to experience
     • LTP
       • the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective neurotransmission across the synapse
     • LTD
       • the long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission
     • Hebb's rule
       • 'neurons that fire together wire together' when neurotransmitters are repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap, pre-synaptic and post synaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time, changing the structure of the synapse and therefore strengthening the synaptic connection. When this happens, they are more likely to fire together again nd transmit their signals more forcibly and efficiently in the future .
   • Neurotransmitters
     • A chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue
     • glutamate
       • the primary excitatory neurotransmitter for information transmission throughout the brain; plays a crucial role in the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections during learning and memory formation, by making post-synaptic neurons more likely to fire
       • AMPA and NMDA
         • both glutamate receptors that must be present on the dendrites of post-synaptic neurons for a message carried in glutamate to be accepted
         • process
           • AMPA prepares the PS neuron to accept glutamate
             • AMPA clears out
               • NMDA accepts glutamate
                 • glutamate excites the PS neuron and convey is messages
   • neurohormones
     • A chemical messenger manufactured by a neuron that is released into the bloodstream and carried to target neurons or cells
     • adrenaline
       • a hormone produced within the adrenal gland that is secreted during stress and may also affect the memory consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences

2. Models to explain learning

   • classical conditioning
     • Refers to a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli
     • 3-phase model
       • during conditioning
         • The NS and UCS are repeatedly associated to produce an UCR
       • after conditioning
         • NS becomes the CS and produces a CR
       • before conditioning
         • UCS produces automatically occurring response (UCR) NS produces no relevant response
     • UCS
       • Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring response
       • NS
         • Any object or event that does not normally produce a predictable response
         • UCR
           • The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented
           • CS
             • The stimulus that is 'neutral' at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produces the UCR but eventually becomes associated with the UCS and produces a CR
             • CR
               • the learned response that is produced by the CS
     • acquisition
       • The process by which the organism learns to associate two events- the NS and the UC, until the NS alone has become the CS that produces the CR
       • extinction
         • The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a response which occurs over time when the UCS is not presented
         • spontaneous recovery
           • the reappearance of a CR following a rest period and after it's apparent extinction
           • stimulus generalisation
             • The tendency for similar stimuli to produce a similar response or identical response
             • stimulus discrimination
               • the ability to distinguish between two (or more) different stimuli, even if they are similar
     • learner is passive
     • The 'Little Albert' Experiment
       • conditioned emotional response
         • an emotional reaction in response to a specific stimulus
       • NS- white rat
         • UCS- loud noise
           • UCR- crying/distress in response to the loud noise
             • CS- white rat
               • CR- crying/distress in response to the white rat
       • stimulus generalisation
         • albert was afraid of anything white and/or fluffy
       • aim
         • to test the belief the fear can be acquired through classical conditioning
       • breaches of ethical principles
         • informed consent
           • withdrawal rights
             • respect for persons
               • Debriefing
                 • voluntary participation
                   • confidentiality
   • operant conditioning
     • A type of learning for which the consequences of a behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
     • 3-phase model
       • antecedent
         • the stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour
         • behaviour
           • the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent
           • consequence
             • the environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has en effect on the reoccurrence of the behaviour
     • learner is active
     • reinforcement
       • when a stimulus strengthens the likelihood of a response that it follows
       • positive reinforcement
         • involves getting or applying a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made
         • negative reinforcement
           • Involves the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
     • punishment
       • the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response, weakening the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again
       • positive punishment
         • involves the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby decreasing the likelihood of the response occurring again
         • negative punishment/response cost
           • Involves the removal of a valued stimulus, thereby decreasing the likelihood of the response occurring again.
     • acquisition
       • learning through repeated association of a behaviour and it's consequence
       • extinction
         • the gradual decrease in the strength of a conditioned response, following consistent non-reinforcement of the behaviour
         • spontaneous recovery
           • the reappearance of the behaviour when the stimulus is presented, in the absence of reinforcement after the behaviour is apparently extinguished
           • stimulus generalisation
             • when the correct behaviour is made to another stimulus that is similar to the original antecedent that was present when the behaviour was reinforced
             • stimulus discrimination
               • occurs when the organism does the correct behaviour to a specific stimulus, but does not respond to any other stimuli
   • observational learning
     • occurs when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions
     • learner is active (more active than operant)
     • vicarious conditioning
       • when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation
       • vicarious reinforcement
         • when an individual observes a model displaying behavior that is reinforced, which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the observer performing that behaviour in a modified or identical way
       • vicarious punishment
         • when an individual observes  a model displaying behaviour that is punished, which has the effect of reducing the likelihood of the observer performing that behaviour in a modified or identical way
     • processes (ARRMR)
       • Attention
         • involves closely watching a model's behaviour and it's consequences
         • retention
           • involves memory storage of the observed behaviour so the behaviour may be reproduce when needed
           • reproduction
             • when the model's behaviour has been closely attended to and retained in memory, we can attempt to reproduce or imitate what has been observed. We must however, have the ability o put into practice what we observed
             • motivation
               • the desire to produce a response that was once observed
               • reinforcement
                 • watching the model receive reinforcement. Receiving reinforcement increases the likelihood of reproducing the behaviour.
                 • self-reinforcement
                   • when we are reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves
                 • vicarious reinforcement
                   • occurs indirectly by observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced without personal experiencing the reinforcement
                 • external reinforcement
                   • learning by consequences (you getting a reinforcer for completing tasks) e.g. money
     • factors influencing
       • we are more likely to imitate behaviour if the model is: -perceived positively -similar to us -familiar -attractive

3. Process of memory

   • Attkinson- Shiffrin Model
     • A representation of memory consisting of 3 separate stores including sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. Describes memory in terms of its structural features and control processes.
     • sensory memory
       • -the entry point of memory where new incoming sensory information is stored for a very brief period -enables perceptual continuity for the world around us capacity- potentially unlimited duration- 0.2-4 seconds
       • iconic memory
         • -visual sensory memory -duration- 0.2-0.4 of a second -capacity- unlimited
       • echoic memory
         • -auditory sensory memory -duration- 3-4 seconds -capacity- unlimited
     • short term memory
       • -a memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way -transfers information from STM to LTM -maintains information in conscious awareness for immediate use -duration- 18-30 seconds -capacity- 7+- 2 items
       • working memory
         • short term memory is also referred to as working memory because it is where information can be brought into conscious awareness and temporarily stored so that it can be actively worked on while we undertake everyday tasks.
       • encoding
         • the conversion of information into a useable form so that is can be stored in memory
     • long term memory
       • explicit(declarative) memory
         • memories requiring conscious control
         • semantic memory
           • -auditory sensory memory -duration- 3-4 seconds -capacity- unlimited
         • episodic memory
       • implicit memory
         • procedural memory
         • classically conditioned memory
       • retrieval
         • the recovery of stored information and bringing into conscious awareness for use when needed
     • structural features
       • permanent, built in features of memory that do not change from one situation to the other. e.g. storage capacity and storage duration
     • control processes
       • an activity that is consciously performed to assist the memory process e.g. attention and rehearsal (whether or not the individual decides to attend to the information will determine whether it is transferred to STM)
   • Brain regions involved
     • Hippocampus
     • Amygdala
     • cerebellum
     • cerebral cortex

4. Reliability of memory

   • retrieving information
     • Recall
       • free recall
       • cued recall
       • serial recall
     • Recognition
     • Relearning
       • method of savings
     • Reconstruction