Conditioning and Learning

Conditioning and Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Form of learning where the subject come to respond to previously neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) that has been paired with another stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a response (conditioned response).
   • Conditioned stimulus (CS)
     • Initially netral stimulus which does not elicit any particular response. Due to association with an unconditioned stimulus it then starts to elicit a response, eg ringing the sound of a bell is the conditioned stimulus
   • Unconditioned stimulus (US)
     • Stimulus that elicits an automatic response, eg presense of food
   • Unconditioned Response (UR)
     • Automatic response to a non-neurtral stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that does not need to be learned eg salivating at the presence of food
   • Conditioned Response (CR)
     • Response previously associated with a non-neutral stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that is elicited by a neutral stimuus (conditioned stimulus) through conditioning eg, salivating at the sound of a bell (no longer at he presence of food)
   • Taste aversion conditioning
     • Taste is paired with sickness and this causes the individual to reject the laste in the future
   • Fear conditioning
     • The conditioned stimulus is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus. As a consequence the CS comes to evoke fear
   • Conditioned compensatory response
     • A conditioned response that opposes the unconditioned response, rather than it being the same. It reduces the unconditioned response - often seen when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli
   • Blocking
     • When a conditioned stimulus is learned as a conditioned reponse, any additional stimulus will not be learned
   • Prediction error
     • The chance that the conditioned stimulus will not lead to the expected outcome

2. Operant conditioning

   • First studied by Edward Thorndike and later extended by B.F. Skinner. Learning controlled by the consequences of the organisms behaviour
   • Positive Reinforcement
     • Presents a simulus
     • Increases target behaviour
   • Negative Reinforcement
     • Removes a stimulus
     • Increases target behaviour
   • Positive Punishment
     • Presents a stimulus
     • Decreases target behaviour
   • Negative Punishment
     • Removes a stimulus
     • Decreases target behaviour
   • Thorndike's law of effect
     • Operant responses are influensed by their effects. When behaviour has a positive effect or consequence is is likely to be repeated in the future. When a behaviour has a negative consequence it is less likely to be repeated
     • Reinforcers
       • Effects that increase behaviour
       • Reinforcer devaluation effect
         • the individual/animal will stop performing the reinforced response if that response is seperately made to be udesirable, adversive or linked with an ilness
         • Goal-directed
         • Habit
           • Even if linked with ilness, the individual may form habit ad continue with the respose
     • Punishers
       • Effects that decrease behaviour
   • Stimulus control
     • When operant bevaiour is controlled by the stimulus that preceeds it. eg, waiting for the traffic light to turn green before you drive
     • Discriminative stimulus
       • In operant conditioning, the tarticular stimulus that signals the response to be reinforced
   • The reponse requires choice between behaviours
     • Whereas in crassical conditioning there is no choice. Eg you choose to go to a bar rather than study for an exam
     • Quantative law of effect
       • Strength of reinforcing one particular behaviour is dependant on the alternative reinforcers. eg if pressing a button produces one food pellet, but pulling a lever produces two, then the animal will choose the greater reinforcer. Alcohol, sex, drugs may be less reinforcing if in the individuals environment is full of other reinfrocers, high achievement, love, family

3. Difference between Classical and Operant conditioning

   • Classical
     • Target behaviour is elicited automatically
       • As in "pulled out" of the individual by unconditioned stiulus and lated by the conditioned stimulus (the US is reflexive and automatic and does not require training, eg salivating)
       • Reward is provided unconditionally, regardless of what the individual does
         • Eg, food is presented regardless of how much or whether the dog is salivating
         • The behaviour depends primaril on autonomic nervous system
           • Learning involves changes in heart rate, breathing, perspiration and other bodily systems
   • Operant
     • Target behaviour is emitted voluntary
       • The response is generated by the organism in a seemingly voluntary fashion
       • Reward is dependant on behaviour
         • If the animal does not emit a response, is comes out empty handed
         • Behaviour depends primarily on skeletal muscles
           • Involves changes in voluntary motor behaviour

4. Aquisition

   • Learning phase during which a response is established

5. Erasing classical conditioning

   • Exinction
     • Gradual reduction and eventual elimination of a sonditioned response after the condisitoned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the undonditioned stimulus, eg reduction and extincltion of salivating at the sound of the bell when the bell continues to ring without presenting the food afterwards
     • Renewal effect
       • After extinction has occured, the response may return when the context is changed. It is especially strong when the change of context involves to the context in which conditioning originally occured
   • Spontaneous recovery
     • Sudden re-emergence of an extinguished response after a delay, eg the smell of chalk may remind of detention back in school days

6. Observational learning

   • Learning through observing
   • Social learning theory
     • Attention
       • One must pay attention to what they are observing
     • Retention
       • One must retain what they observed in memory
     • Initiation
       • One must execute what they learned
     • Motivation
       • One must posess motivation to engage in observational learning, eg the child must show motivation to want to learn how to play the game in order to properly engage in observational learning
   • Consequences in observational learning
     • Vicarious reinforcement
       • learning that occurs by observing reinforcement or punishment of another person