Forensic Psychology

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Section One: Turning to Crime

Upbringing

Farrington et al - Disruptive Families

Sutherland - Learning From Others

Wikstrom and Tajfel - Disadvantaged Neighnourhoods

Cognitive

Yochelson and Samenow - Criminal Thinking Patterns

Kohlberg - Moral Development

Gidjohnsson and Bownes - Attrition of Blame and Type of Crime

Biological

Raine - Brain Dysfunction

Bruner et al - Genes

Daly and Wilson - Gender and Life Expectancy

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Upbringing: Disruptive Families.

Farrington et al.

DOCUMENT the START, DURATION and END of OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR from CHILDHOOD to ADULTHOOD in families.

To investigate the INFLUENCES of LIFE EVENTS, the risk and protective factors PREDICTING OFFENDING and ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR.

LONGITUDINAL STUDY

411 BOYS aged 8 and 9 when study began.

SELECTED from REGISTERS of 6 STATE SCHOOLS in EAST LONDON and were mostly WHITE WORKING CLASS

Came from 397 different families.

LAST INTERVIEWED at age 48. 394 STILL ALIVE and 365 were interviewed.

RESULTS:

AGE 48- out of 404 individuals searched from CRIMINAL RECORDS, 167 had CONVICTIONS

NUMBER of OFFENDERS and CONVICTIONS PEAKED at age 17

91% of Individuals who offended at age 10-13 committed AN AVERAGE 9 CRIMES

84% of individuals who offended at age 14-16 committed AN AVERAGE 6 CRIMES

These two groups made up 77% of all crimes in the group (620/808)

SELF-REPORT shows that 93% had committed AT LEAST ONE OFFENCE in their lives.

7% were defined as CHRONIC OFFENDERS and SHARED CHILDHOOD CHARACTERISTICS such as;

Convicted Before 21

Convicted Parent

High Daring

Delinquent Sibling

Young Mother

Low Popularity

Large and Disruptive Family

PROPORTION of men leading SUCCESSFUL LIVES INCREASED from 78% at 32 to 88% at 48

Evaluation

SAMPLE_

Big sample of 411- individual differences removed.

HOWEVER, GENDER BIAS and ETHNOCENTRIC with ATTRITION THROUGHOUT STUDY.

DESIGN_

Longitudinal Study with Repeated Measures- Reduces Individual Differences and allows direct comparisons and observations.

HOWEVER, ATTRITION LOWERS VALIDITY

METHOD_

Self-Report and Interviews- QUAL AND QUANT DATA. Can be completed quickly and in bulk with comparisons easily made.

HOWEVER, RESPONSES MAY BE BIASES- SOCIAL DESIRABILITY, DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS.

PROCEDURE_

Parents and Teachers were also interviewed- different sources of information that can be compared to increase validity. Police record checks were also carried out to test truthfulness.

HOWEVER, DATA BASES MAY NOT BE GIVEN FREELY AND SO ANY WORSE CRIMES WILL NOT BE SHOWN, AS WEL AS ANY CRIMES COMMITTED THAT WERENT FOUND OUT ABOUT- LOWERS VALIDITY.

FINDINGS_

Some were based on the Chronic Offenders (those who had committed a large number of crimes)- give indication that the majority do not have a criminal pattern. Self-report method provides attentional information about the individuals choices and mindset.

HOWEVER, SMALL PERCENTAGE OF THE SAMPLE WERE CHRONIC OFFENDERS- FINDINGS ARE BIAS AND LACK VALIDITY FROM SELF-REPORTING.

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Upbringing: Learning From Others

Sutherland.

Sutherland presented his theory in the form of NINE PRINCIPLES:

1. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNT.

Criminal behaviour is NOT INHERITED or a RESULT of a BIOLOGICAL CONDITION.

Without prior influence from others, the individual in incapable of inventing criminal behaviour.

2. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED THROUGH INTERACTION WITH OTHER PERSONS BY COMMUNICATION.

Communication may either be through verbal interactions or non-verbal, such as gestures. Criminality does not evolve in isolation.

3. THE PRINCIPLE PART OF THE LEARNING OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR OCCURS WITHIN INTIMATE PERSONAL GROUPS.

The Largest influence in criminal behaviour is the role of intimate, personal groups, whereas factors such as media play a relatively low part in influencing criminal behaviour.

4. WHEN CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED, IT INCLUDES THE TECHNIQUES OF COMMITTING A CRIME, WHICH CAN BE SIMPLE AND VERY COMPLICATED.

A criminal learns the 'trade' from someone, including specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisation and attitudes.

5. THE SPECIFIC DIRECTION OF MOTIVES AND DRIVES IS LEARNED FROM DEFINITIONS OF LEGAL CODES AS FAVOURABLE OR UNFAVOURABLE.

Some groups come together as they see certain laws as pointless or discriminating and therefore they can flaunt them (underage drinking and smoking)

6. A PERSON BECOMES DELINQUENT BECAUSE OF AN EXCESS OF DEFINITIONS FAVOURABLE TO VIOLATIONS OF LAW OVER DEFINITIONS UNFAVOURABLE TO VIOLATION OF LAW.

The principle of differential association is to do with the individuals having repeated contacts with criminal activity and reduced contacts with non-criminal activity.

7. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATIONS MAY AVRY IN FREQUENCY, DURATION, PRIORITY AND INTENSITY.

A quantitative description of a persons behaviour could be undertaken based on the number of contacts that the individual has with criminals. However, a precise formula is difficult to develop.

8. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR BY ASSOCIATION WITH CRIMINAL AND ANTI-CRIMINAL PATTERNS INVOLVES ALL OF THE MECHANISMS THAT ARE INVOLVED IN ANY OTHER LEARNING (LIKE BEHAVIOURISM)

Sutherland suggests that learning criminal behaviour is the same as learning any other type of behaviour.

9. WHILE CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IS AN EXPRESSION OF GENERAL NEEDS AND VALUES, IT IS NOT EXPLAINED BY THOSE GENERAL NEEDS AND VALUES AS NON-CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR REQUIRES THEM ALSO.

Obtaining money can be done in a number of ways, honestly or otherwise, such as a thief steals to obtain money whilst a labourer works.