Flashcards
Memory 2
Cards in this deck (79)
- 1Who was Joshua Foer?Trained himself to become a memory champion (National Memory Championships)
Mnemonics - 2What did Maguire et al. find regarding routes to remembering?Compared 10 top memory champs with matched controls
Brains = anatomically indistinguishable
General cognitive ability = normal
Relied more heavily on spatial memory regions (R hippocampus) - 3What is mental imagery?Experiences we describe in terms such as "looking at a mental picture" or "picturing it in our heads"
- 4What is a mnemonic?A device for improving memory (often using mental imagery)
- 5Who was Shereshevskii (aka 'S')?Mnemonist - remarkable imagery (5 fold synesthesia)
Could remember 50 digits after 3mins study -> still recall them mths later - 6What did 'S' struggle to remember?Faces - too changing
Digressions - too many memories (e.g. colour, taste, smell, where it is etc) - 7Who developed mnemonics?Ancient Greeks (then Romans)
[employed as a branch of rhetoric] - 8How do mnemonics work?Rely on associations between easily remembered constructs which can be related back to the data which needs to be remembered
- 9What is the Method of Loci?"Memory Palace"
1) Learn places
2) Encode list (put object in each)
3) Retrieve list (mentally repeat sequence of places) - 10What is interactive imagery?One item helps you remember another if they are linked/ interacting
E.g. in the method of loci, items are more memorable if imagined actively involved with the location
E.g. dog next to bike vs dog riding bike - 11Did Wollen, Weber and Lowry find that memory was enhanced by bizarre imagery?No - degree of interaction in the image is a better indicator of effectiveness
- 12Which is easier to remember: abstract or concrete items?Concrete -> can't visualise abstract items in the same way
- 13What is the keyword method?Use association
Atkinson & Raugh - learning foreign vocab = 72% correct with keywords vs 46% without
E.g. chèvre -> Chevy
Form image associating (goat driving Chevy)
Goat->Chevy->chèvre - 14What is Dual-Coding Theory?Paivio
There are 2 independent codes - visual (imagery) and verbal
Memory is more likely to be successful if it utilises both (one fails, other fills in) - 15What is a major alternative theory to the Dual Processing theory?Single Storage Medium (Pylyshyn)
What is stored is neither an image or a verbal code -> instead it is abstract
Info is stored as logical propositions e.g. ON(BOOK, TABLE) - 16What were the problems with the single medium view?Didn't explain the subjective experience of imagery (have an impression of using it)
or why imagery objectively improves memory - 17What modifications did Kosslyn make to the DUal-Coding theory?From imagery + verbal (Paivio)
to
imagery + propositional
Overlap between perception & visual images-> image represented in special-purpose medium - 18What is Kosslyn's Computational Model?Mental images = represented in an analogue medium (preserves structure of original info - e.g. a map)
- 19What evidence is there for analogue processing?Shepard & Metzler - used mental rotation tasks
Time taken to make decision = directly related to how far target object was rotated (as though they were mentally rotating it) - 20What other imagery operations seem to resemble the perception of a 'real' picture?Mental size - if asked about something regarding the smaller object, answer takes longer (have to 'zoom')
- 21What issues might there be with this evidence?Results might just be caused by participants' knowledge of the world
E.g. took longer to imagine traversing familiar route when told they were carrying a cannonball vs a balloon - 22How can we distinguish between memories and imaginations?Source Monitoring Framework
'reality monitoring' - 23What are the two things that need to be evaluated?1) Qualitative attributes (memory = sensory attributes; imagined = cognitive process of forming)
2) Plausibility/coherence (memories fit with knowledge about world & other memories) - 24What is a real world example of imagery being utilised?Sport - many athletes/coaches believe in power of imagery to enhance performance
- 25Which two stages of memory can be effected by emotion?Encoding
Retrieval - 26How might emotion affect memory encoding?Intense emotion during event -> influence likelihood of being remembered
Positive influence i.e. flashbulb
Negative influence i.e. repression
Relevant to clinical settings (e.g. PTSD etc) - 27How might emotion affect memory retrieval?Emotion at time of retrieval -> influence what is remembered
Tend to match mood (mood-congruent retrieval)
Tend to remember events originally experienced in same mood (mood state-dependent learning) - 28What is a flashbulb memory?Form for highly surprising & consequential events
Like a photo - remember even unimportant details - 29Are flashbulb memories qualitatively different (i.e. they remain fixed in memory)?No - Neisser & Harsch
Studied flashbulb memory of 'Challenger Disaster'
Asked again after 3yrs - 50% were wrong about 2/3 of what they recalled - 30Is there a special flashbulb mechanism?Probably not - differ quantitatively not qualitatively
Subject to same reconstructive processes/ forgetting curve
Consistency/accuracy is not higher
Confidence & vividness is higher - 31What is higher retention in flashbulb memories associated with?Emotional impact of event
Increased rehearsal of memory (more likely to repeat story etc) - 32What is repression?Proposed by Freud
Painful/frightening memories are actively blocked/inhibited - 33What is the issue with Freud's account?Rely on imaginative interpretation (not prediction)
No experimental evidence - 34Why is it difficult to experimentally study repression?Ethics - can't expose subjects to trauma
Often impossible to independently verify traumatic experiences - 35What is the 'Recovered Memory' debate?Whether memory recovered in therapy is due to overcoming repression
OR whether therapist has somehow implanted a false memory - 36Who doubts repression entirely?Loftus
- 37What is mood-congruent retrieval?When in a depressed mood, there is a bias towards remembering negative info
Recall tends to be slower for positive & faster for negative events in both clinical & non-clinical populations - 38How is mood-congruent retrieval useful in therapy?Cognitive therapy for depression (Beck)
Aim to escape vicious cycle - if a depressed patient is helped to overcome a possible negative bias in their views, it may assist recovery - 39What is State-Dependent Learning?Context dependent learning (e.g. Godden & Baddeley - divers)
Learn in state A -> can remember when in state A but not in state B
(e.g. drunk vs sober) - 40What is Mood-Dependent Learning?Same principle as state-dependent
i.e. internal mood state
Poorer performance at mis-match (e.g. sad at learning, happy at recall)
Doesn't work as well for cued recall - 41Who proposed the 'Network of Emotion'?Bower
Emotions are represented by nodes in semantic network in long-term memory
Connected to associated events/emotions
Inhibit opposing emotion node - 42Evaluate Bower's network theoryExplains mood-congruent effects
Explains mood state-dependent effects
Treats different emotions in same way
-> depression (past events) = memory
vs anxiety (future) = attention
Restricted in range - 43What is the DRM paradigm?Participants presented with list of words highly associated with non-presented word
"Critical Lure" - 44Is false memory more likely in negative or positive moods?Negative: encode concepts in item-specific manner -> less relational processing reduces probability of false recall
(in positive mood, more likely to encode in relational/global way; see connections -> more impressionable) - 45What is childhood amnesia?General inability to remember very early experiences (before age 4yrs)
- 46Why is anecdotal evidence of early memories difficult to evaluate?May not be independently verifiable
Might be remembering someone else's later description - 47How do we know that childhood amnesia is not because the brain cannot lay down memories?Children under 4yrs are able to recall info about events that occurred earlier in their lives
Just issue with being able to access that info in later life - 48What is the cognitive theory regarding childhood amnesia?Develop language, consciousness and sense of self
As these become more available, begin to process info differently (like upgrading to diff processor) - 49What is the issue with this theory?Cannot account for childhood amnesia observed in other animals e.g. rats
(no language etc) - 50What is the biological theory regarding childhood amnesia?Brain structures (e.g. hippocampus) haven't developed fully enough to support memory
- 51What is the issue with this theory?Not an all-or-nothing phenomenon
Possible to recover memories with additional retrieval cues - 52What is a loss of memory due to a psychological cause called?Psychogenic amnesia
(aka functional amnesia) - 53What is a fugue state?Individuals forget their pasts and identities
Extremely rare
Normally resolves with time especially with therapy - 54How might amnesia affect someone with multiple personality disorder?Different personalities may exhibit mutual amnesia (between identities)
- 55What is Organic Amnesia?Loss of memory due to physical damage to brain
- 56Which areas of the brain are particularly associated with organic amnesia?Bilateral damage to medial temporal lobes
Parts of limbic system (hippocampus, mammillary bodies)
Frontal lobes (e.g. Korsakoff's) - 57What is the Consolidation-Failure hypothesis?In order for short-term memories to become long-term memories, they must go through a consolidation process
If something interrupts this (e.g. damage), s-t memory cannot be consolidated
Hence temporal gradient and no new learning - 58What are the problems for consolidation theory?1) Avoidance learning (unconscious recall e.g. pin handshake)
2) Motor learning (mirror drawing task)
3) Perceptual learning (faster at hidden-figure pictures the following day) - 59How does Schacter explain these results?Difference between explicit & implicit memory
Avoidance/motor/perceptual learning = not explicitly linked to previous event/practice/exposure - 60What is it called when an amnesic patients construct stories to fill the gaps in memory?Confabulation
Associated with damage to frontal areas of brain
Unable to distinguish between real & imaginary - 61What is the positivity bias?Tendency to recall more positive than negative/neutral memories
Increases with age - 62What is the "Cognitive Control" hypothesis?Ability to flexibly control thoughts in accordance with goals
Includes ability to stop unwanted thoughts
Goal changes with age
(survival->happiness) - 63How can rapid forgetting over the short-term be explained?Exceeding capacity of short-term store
E.g. forget as soon as attend to next thing - 64What did Atkinson & Shiffrin suggest regarding memory?Info flows through a series of stores
Environmental input -> Sensory registers -> Short-term store -> Long-term store - 65What happens in the sensory stores?Hold unprocessed info in particular sensory modalities (e.g. visual/auditory) only briefly
Info lost via rapid decay (~1sec) - 66What happens in the short-term store?Holds info for ~15sec
Limited capacity (info lost via displacement)
Info is maintained in store by rehearsal
The more rehearsal, the more opportunities for encoding into long-term store - 67What happens in the long-term store?Input comes via short-term store
Permanent
Unlimited storage capacity
Info can become inaccessible through interference (similar items become confused) - 68What is the Serial Position Effect?Improved recall of 1st few items and last few items in a list
1st = more likely to be in LTS
Last = still in STS - 69What happens if there is a slight delay before recall (e.g. a distraction task)?Advantage is abolished - can't remember last few
Doesn't affect primacy effect (1st items) just recency effect (last items) - 70What are the problems with the theory of a short-term store?Recency effect seems to reflect how distinctive end of list is (not how recent)
No total loss of memory if STS is lost
No automatic improvement with rehearsal - 71What are the 3 major components of Baddeley & Hitch's Working Memory model?1) Phonological Loop
2) Visuospatial Sketchpad
3) Central Executive - 72What are the two parts of the phonological loop?1) Phonological store - holds speech-based info
2) Articulatory control - converts written material into speech code - 73What evidence is there of speech-coding (and therefore the phonological loop) in short-term memory tasks?Acoustic confusion (harder to remember rhyming letters)
Word duration - memory span is roughly equal to what can be repeated in 2secs
Word length effect - longer words have shorter word span so fewer recalled
Articulatory suppression (harder whilst making irrelevant articulations) - 74What evidence is there that the phonological loop (inner speech) is not dependent on outer speech?Anarthric children
Congenitally speechless but have normal memory functioning/span - 75What skill might the phonological loop be involved in?Acquisition of language
- 76What is the visuospatial sketchpad?May hold both visually and spatially based info (e.g. from touch)
Can be entered through perception or mental imagery - 77What is modality-specific interference?Info from 2 sources
Rote rehearsal = more impaired by irrelevant speech (relies on phonological loop)
Visual imagery = more impaired by visual noise (relies on visuospatial sketchpad) - 78What does the central executive do?Controls attention
Not single coordinated system
Multiple functions - cluster of largely autonomous control processes
Least investigated - 79What is a possible criticism of the Working Memory model?Flexible framework not testable theory
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- Degree Psychology (Context) Flashcards on Memory 2, created by Rebecca Dunn on 16/05/2018.
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- Rebecca Dunn
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