CRIME

CRIME

1. TURNING TO CRIME

   • UPBRINGING
     • 1.1 DISRUPTED FAMILIES
       • FARRINGTON - THE CAMBRIDGE STUDY IN DELINGQUENT DEVELOPMENT
     • 1.2 LEARNING FROM OTHERS
       • SUTHERLAND - THEROY OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION
     • 1.3 POVERTY & DISADVANTAGED NEIGHBOURHOODS
       • THE MOST DISADVANTAGED 5% IN SOCIETY ARE 100 TIMES MORE LIKELY TO HAVE MULTIPLE PROBLEMS THAN THE MOST ADVANTAGED 50%
         • WIKSTROM - THE PETERBOROUGH YOUTH STUDY
   • COGNITION
     • 2.1 CRIMINAL THINKING PATTERN
       • IS IT POSSIBLE TO DISCOVER A THOUGHT PROCESS JUST BY INTERVIEWING A PERSON & ASKING THEM WHAT THEY THINK IN A PARTICULAR SITUATION
         • YOCHELSON & SAMENOW - A STUDY OF THINKING PATTERNS IN CRIMINALS
     • 2.2 MORAL DEVELOPMENT & CRIME
       • HOW A SET OF VALUES HAS BEEN BEEN LEARNT BY CHILDREN DURING THEIR UPBRINGING
         • KOHLBERG - MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN (3 LEVELS)
     • 2.3 SOCIAL COGNITION
       • THIS REFERS TO THE WAY OUR THOUGHTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THE PEOPLE WE MIX WITH. IT LOOKS AT AN INDIVIDUALS COGNITIONS
         • GUDJOHNSSON & BOWNES - THE ATTRIBUTION OF BLAME & TYPE OF CRIME COMMITTED
   • BIOLOGY
     • 3.1 BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
       • PET SCANNING TECHNOLOGY TO SEE ABNORMAL DIFFERENCES IN METABOLIC ACTIVITY IN THE BRAIN
         • RAINE - UNDERSTANDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTISOCIAL & AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN CHILDREN
     • 3.2 GENES & SEROTONIN
       • MALES WITH AN EXTRA Y CHROMOSOME WERE PREDISPOSED TO BE VIOLENT CRIMINALS. MALES ABOVE AVERAGE HEIGHT & BELOW AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE
         • BRUNNER - A STUDY OF VIOLENCE IN A FAMILY WITH GENETIC ABNORMAILITY
     • 3.3 GENDER
       • MALES ARE MORE RISK TAKERS COMPARED TO WOMEN THEREFORE REFLECTING THE HIGH NUMBER OF MALES INVOLVED IN VIOLENT CRIMES
         • DALY & WILSON - INVESTIGATION OF GENDER - RELATED LIFE EXPECTANCY

2. MAKING A CASE

   • INTERVIEWING WITNESSES
     • 1.1 RECOGNISING FACES
       • WHEN WE LOOK AT SOMEONE FAMILIAR, FACES ARE RECOGNISED MORE ACCURATELY FROM THEIR EXTERNAL FEATURES (EYES, BROWS, NOSE & MOUTH) THAN FROM THEIR EXTERNAL FACIAL FEATURES (HEAD SHAPE, HAIR & EARS). FOR UNFAMILIAR FACES, THE EXTERNAL FEATURES DOMINATE
         • FROWD - THE IMPORTANCE OF EXTERNAL & INTERNAL FEATURES IN FACIAL RECOGNITION
     • 1.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING IDENTIFICATION
       • WEAPON FOCUS RESULTS IN DIFFICULTY IN REMEMBERING OTHER DETAILS OF THE SCENE
         • LOFTUS - FACTS ABOUT 'WEAPON FOCUS'
     • 1.3 THE COGNITIVE INTERVIEW
       • SET OF INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN BY INTERVIEWER TO THE WITNESS SEARCHING THE MEMORY USING A VARIETY OF RETRIEVAL METHODS; 1 - INTERVIEWING SIMILARITY, 2 - FOCUSED RETRIEVAL, 3 - EXTENSIVE RETRIEVAL & 4 - WITNESS-COMPATIBLE QUESTIONING
         • FISHER - FIELD TEST OF THE COGNITIVE INTERVIEW
   • INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS
     • 2.1 DETECTING LIES
       • USING REAL POLICE OFFICERS WITH REAL WITNESSES MAKES IT EASIER TO OVERCOME PROBLEMS. EKMAN FOUND THAT GROOPS LIKE CIA USED STUDENTS THAT WERE ASKED TO LIE & TELL TRUTH IN LAB EXPERIMENTS
         • MANN - POLICE OFFICERS ABILITY TO DETECT SUSPECTS LIES
     • 2.2 INTERROGATION TECHNIQUES
       • SINCE THE 1984 PACE ALL INTERVIEWS HAVE TO BE RECORDED FOR POLICE AND SOLICITOR DEFENDING THE SUSPECT. THIS MEANS THE DEFENDANT IS PROTECTED AS ANY UNDUE PRESSURE CAN BE REVEALED TO THE COURT IN THE SUSPECT'S DEFENCE
         • INBAU - THE REID 'NINE STEPS' OF INTERROGATION
     • 2.3 FALSE CONFESSION
       • THE MEMORY IS FRAGILE TO SUGGESTION ESPECIALLY WHEN WE ARE IN A VULNERABLE STATE & ANXIOUS
         • GUDJOHNSSON - A CASE OF FALSE CONFESSION
   • CREATING A PROFILE
     • 3.1 TOP-DOWN TYPOLOGY
       • PATTERNS IN MURDER SCENES & CATEGORISE THEM AS ORGANISED OR DISORGANISED. THIS IS HELPFUL IN REDUCING LISTS OF POTENTIAL SUSPECTS
         • CANTER - INVESTIGATION OF THE ORGANISED/DISORGANISED THEORY OF SERIAL MURDER
     • 3.2 BOTTOM UP
       • EXAMINE STATISTICAL CORRELATIONS FROM THE CLUES FOUND AT THE SCENE
         • CANTER & HERITAGE - DEVELOPMENTS IN OFFENDER PROFILING
     • 3.3 CASE STUDY
       • THE CASE OF JOHN DUFFY ILLUSTRATES THE STYLE OF PROFILING ADOPTED BY CANTER. IT GIVES UP THAT THESE TECHNIQUES WOULD TRANSFORM THE SEARCH FOR SUSPECTS IN MURDER CASES
         • CANTER - CASE OF JOHN DUFFY

3. REACHING A VERDICT

   • PERSUADING THE JURY
     • 1.1 EFFECT OF ORDER TESTIMONY
       • HOW WE RECEIVE INFORMATION AFFECTS HOW WELL WE PROCESS & REMEMBER IT. THE PRIMACY EFFECT IS ONE SUCH FACTOR. PRESENTING EVIDENCE AS A STORY WORKS MORE CONVINCINGLY
         • PENNINGTON & HASTIE - EFFECTS OF MEMORY STRUCTURE ON JUDGEMENT
     • 1.2 PERSUATION
       • EXPERT WITNESESSES SUCH AS PSYCHOLOGISTS TALK ABOUT VARIABLES LIKE WEAPON FOCUS WHICH CAN AFFECT THE MEMORY TELLING THE JURY THAT THE WITNESSES COULD HAVE AN INACCURATE VERSION OF EVENTS
         • CUTLER - THE EFFECT OF THE EXPERT WITNESS ON JURY PERCEPTION OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
     • 1.3 EFFECT OF EVIDENCE BEING RULED INADMISSIBLE
       • THE JUDGE TELLING THE JURY TO IGNORE INADMISSABLE EVIDENCE MAKES THEM ACTUALLY PAY MORE ATTENTION TO IT
         • PICKEL - INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONS TO DISREGARD INADMISSIBLE EVIDENCE
   • WITNESS APPEAL
     • 2.1 ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE DEFENDANT
       • IMPRESSION FORMATION, ATTRIBUTION AND HALO EFFECT - IT IS BIAS BECAUSE THE JURY/JUDGE MAY GIVE THEIR OVERALL IMPRESSION
         • CASTELLOW - THE EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS ON JURY VERDICTS
     • 2.2 WITNESS CONFIDENCE
       • WHEN A WITNESS IS CONFIDENT THE JURY GAIN CONFIDENCE IN WHAT THEY ARE SAYING & BELIEVE IT TO BE MORE ACCURATE
         • PENROD & CUTLER - THE EFFECT OF WITNESS CONFIDENCE ON JURORS ASSESSMENT OF EYEWITNESS EVIDENCE
     • 2.3 EFFECT OF SHIELDS & VIDEOTAPE ON CHILDREN GIVING EVIDENCE
       • IMPLICATIONS OF SHIELDS SUGGESTING TO THE JURY THAT THE CHILD NEEDS PROTECTING FROM THE DEFENDANT
         • ROSS - THE IMPACT OF PROTECTIVE SHIELDS & VIDEOTAPE TESTIMONY ON CONVICTION RATES
   • REACHING A VERDICT
     • 3.1 STAGES IN DECISION-MAKING
       • ORIENTATION PERIOD (RELAXED OPEN DISCUSSION) - OPEN CONFRONTATION (FIERCE DEBATE) - RECONCILIATION (ATTEMPTS TO SMOOTH OVER CONFLICTS)
         • HASTIE - STAGES & INFLUENCES ON DESCISON -MAKING
     • 3.2 MAJORITY INFLUENCE
       • THE NEED TO BELONG IS THOUGHT TO BE PART OF THE SOCIALISATION PROCESS, WHICH INFLUENCES THEM WITH LOWER SELF-ESTEEM WHO ARE INSECURE ABOUT THEIR OWN WORTH & OPIONONS
         • ASCH - THE POWER OF MAJORITY INFLUENCE
     • 3.3 MINORITY INFLUENCE
       • CHOOSING WHERE TO SIT AROUND THE TABLE HAS INTERESTING REPERCUSSIONS
         • NEMETH & WACHTLER - INVESTIGATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF PERCEIVED AUTONOMY ON MINORITY INFLUENCE

4. AFTER A GUILTY VERDICT

   • IMPRISONMENT
     • 1.1 PLANNED BEHAVIOUR ONCE FREES FROM JAIL
       • 50% OF ALL UK PRISONERS ARE AT OR BELOW THE LEVEL EXPECTED OF AN 11 YR OLD IN READING. 50 % ALSO DON'Y HAVE THE SKILLS REQUIRED FOR 96% OF JOBS
         • GILLIS & NAFEKH - THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY-BASED EMPLOYMENT ON OFFENDER REINTEGRATION
     • 1.2 DEPRESSION/SUICIDE RISK IN PRISONS
       • OVERCROWDING INCREASES PRISONERS STRESS AND MANY PRISONERS SUFFER FROM MENTAL HEALTH AND ADDICTION PROBLEMS (442 UNNATURAL DEATHS IN PRISONS 1972-1987)
         • DOOLEY - UNNATURAL DEATHS IN PRISON
     • 1.3 THE PRISON SITUATION & ROLES
       • PRISONS & TREATMENT PROGRAMMES HAVE TO BE SEEN WITHIN THE LEGAL & POLITICAL OF THE COUNTRY
         • HANEY & ZIMBARDO - THE PAST & FUTURE OF PRISON POLICY IN THE USA
   • ALTERNATIVES TO IMPRISONMENT
     • 2.1 PROBATION
       • OFFERS CHANCE TO INTEGRATE BACK INTO SOCIETY. HOWEVER PRESSURES ON THE SYSTEM MEAN THAT INSUFFICIENT TIME IS SPENT WITH OFFENDERS PRE & POST REALEASE. 1/3 WENT ON TO COMMIT ANOTHER CRIME
         • MAIR & MAY - INVESTIGATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF OFFENDERS ON PROBATION ORDERS
     • 2.2 RESTORATIVE JUSTICE