Chapter Six

Chapter Six

1. Learning = relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience

2. Classic conditioning = type of learning in which stimulus acquires capacity to evoke response that originally evoked by another stimulus

   • Pavlovian conditioning
     • Psychic reflexes
       • Classic Cond. - elicited (automatic)
   • Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response
     • Neutral becomes conditioned and elicits conditioned responce
       • Conditioned responses include involuntary reflexes and visceral responses
       • CS = through conditioning acquires capacity to evoke conditioned response
       • CR = learned reaction because of conditioning
       • Trial = presentation of stimulus
     • UCS = evokes UCR without previous conditioning
     • UCR = unlearned reaction to UCS without previous conditioning
   • Fear and anxiety
     • Phobias = irrational fears
   • Attitudes
     • Evaluative conditioning = changes in liking of stimulus that result from pairing stimulus with positive of negative stimuli
   • Physiological response
     • immunosuppression = decrease in production of antibodies
     • allergic reactions
   • Drug effects
     • drug tolerance
     • Conditioned response are reactions opposite of normal effects of drugs
       • Compensatory CRS - maintain homeostasis
   • Basic processes
     • Acquisition = initial stage of learning
       • Depends on stimulus contiguity (occur together)
     • Extinction = gradual weakening or disappearance of CR
       • Due to consistent presentation of stimulus ALONE
     • Spontaneous recovery
       • Reappearance of extinguished response after period of nonexposure of CS
       • Renewal Effect = response extinguished in different enviroment that it was acquired, extinguished response will appear if animal is returned to original enviroment
     • Stimulus generalization = occurs when organism that has learned specific response to stimulus, responses in same way to similar stimulus
       • the more similar new stimuli are to original CS the greater the generalization
       • John B Watson
         • Examined generalization of conditioned fear on "Little Albert"
           • Initially afraid of white rat, paired with loud noise, showing fear to noise
             • rat - CS eliciting fear (generalizing fear with white objects)
     • Stimulus discrimination = organism learned response to specific stimulus does not respond the same way to similar stimuli
       • Less similar new stimuli are to original CS, greater likelihood of discrimination
     • Higher order conditioning = conditioned stimulus functions as if it was an unconditioned stimulus
       • new CR are built on foundation of already established CR
     • Cognition - predictions/expectations
       • Response followed by positive outcome is strengthened
   • Biological Effects
     • "Sauce Bearnaise Syndrome" - develop aversions to food followed by illness
       • sauce (NS) paired with the flu (US) created nausea (UCR) Sauce became the CS
       • Aversions selectively seek flavors o the exclusion of other stimuli
     • Preparedness = species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways

3. Operant Conditioning (instrumental learning) = form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by consequences

   • Thorndike's law of effect = response to presence of stimulus leads to satisfying effects, association between stimulus and response is strengthened
   • Skinner
     • Baby Box - organisms tend to repeat responses followed by favorable consequences
       • Reinforcement: event following a response increases tendency to make response
         • Primary - events that inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
         • Secondary/conditioned - events acquire reinforcing qualities by association with primary reinforcers
         • Schedule of reinforcement - determines which occurrences of specific response result in presentation of reinforcer
           • Continuous reinforcement - every instance of response is enforced
           • Partial reinforcement - response is reinforced some of the time
           • Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcer is given after fixed number of nonreinforced responses
           • Variable ration response: reinforcer is given after variable number of nonreinforced responses
           • Fixed interval schedule: reinforcer is given for first response that occurs after a fixed time interval
           • Variable interval schedule: reinforcer is given for first response after variable time interval
         • Positive reinforcement: occurs when response is strengthened by followed by rewarding stimulus
           • Eg.) promotions, good grades, etc
         • Negative reinforcement: response is strengthened after removal of unpleasant stimulus
           • Eg.) Cleaning to get rid of mess, medication to get better, etc
         • Escape learning: organism acquires response that ends aversive stimulation
         • Avoidance learning: Organism acquires response that prevent aversive stimulation
         • Punishment - event following response weakens tendency to make response
           • Positive punishment: application of aversive consequences
           • Negative punishment: removal of reward
       • Operant chamber (skinner box); animal can make specific response that is recorded while consequences of response are controlled
         • Reinforcement contingencies: rules that determine if responses lead to presentation of reinforcers
           • Experimenter manipulates if positive consequences occur when animal makes correct response
         • cumulative recorder: graphic recording and reinforcement in box as function of time
           • dependent variable - response rate
           • Rapid response = steep slope Slow response = shallow slope
   • Shaping: reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of desired response
     • When organism does not emit response on its own
   • Terms
     • Extinction - When previous available reinforcement is stopped (CS presented alone until it no longer elicits CR)
       • Resistance to extinction: organism continues to make response after reinforcement has been eliminated
     • Discriminative stimuli: cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating probable consequences
       • Stimulus generalization: responding to stimulus as if it was original
       • Stimulus discrimination: Respond to only original stimulus
     • Latent learning: learning not apparent from behaviour when first occurs
     • Instinctive drift: innate response interfere with conditioning response

4. Observational Learning= organisms responding is influenced by observation of others (models)

   • Observer attends to models behaviour and its consequences
     • Tendency to emit response strengthened or weakened depending on consequences observed
   • Basic Processes
     • Attention - pay attention to behaviour and consequences
     • Retention - store in memory a mental representation until response is used
     • Reproduction - Ability to copy behaviour
     • Motivation - Motivation in situation where behaviour is likely to pay off
   • Albert Bandura
   • Mirror neurons: activated by performing an action or by seeing another person perform same action

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