Textual Variations

Textual Variations

1. The Functions of interaction: a classification system determined by the Open University

   • Instrumental function - language used to get something done or to carry out business
     • Control function: language used to control the behaviour of others or act in a way we want. e.g (parents and chidlren)
       • Stimulation function: telling jokes and stories to amuse and entertain ourselves
     • Information function: to pass information or request information
       • Role- related function: language we are expected to use to fulfil our specific roles. e.g wedding service or a parent.
     • Expression function: expressing our ideas, feelings and attitudes
       • Alleviation of Anxiety function: talking about fears and problems can make them seem more manageable
     • Social contact function: language used to open, establish and maintain relationships with people
   • Thurnows Classification of communication functions

2. H.P Grice

   • The Co-Operative Principle
     • The Maxim of Relation: make sure whatever you say is relevant to the conversation
       • Maxim of Quality: make sure whatever you say it true and there is evidence to what you say
         • Maxim of Quantity: make sure that what you say is necessary - no more and no less
           • Maxim of Manner: make sure it's clear and it's easy to understand
     • Often speakers break the maxims but think they're still using the co-operative principle
       • Flouting a maxim: not using the maxim/not following it. This is accidental
         • Violating a maxim: Don't want the person to understand. Deliberately not co-operating e.g lying
         • Implicatures: implying something, hidden meanings - trying to say more
   • Wanted to explain the contextual conditions which had to be met for us to communicate meanings effectively. He created 4 Maxims
     • Found that we often don't follow the maxims strongly. However we still manage to communicate our ideas
       • This is because listeners assume we are trying to communicate and therefore make what we say fit the maxims.
   • Limitations
     • The maxims aren't always used and yet we can still have effective conversations.
       • Focuses on the transactional functions and ignores interactional sides of language.

3. Face Theory:

   • Erving Goffman created the term face to describe the public persona we present in interaction. He suggests we are constantly playing a role and presenting 'a version' of ourselves to others.
     • Brown and Levinson built on Goffman's ideas and defined 'face' as something that we're emotionally invested in and can be lost, maintained or enhanced.
       • Positive face: we want to look good and be noticed. We created a self image that can be appreciated
         • Negative face: we don't want to get involved in something
       • We try not to make face threatening acts to others in conversation and therefore we use 'facework' to avoid this.

4. Politeness Principle - Robin Lakoff

   • Created the politeness principle to explain why we flout Grice's maxims
     • Lakoff proposed 3 maxims: Don't impose, Give options and Make the reciever(s) feel good

5. Turn Taking:

   • Pauses can occur between a turn finishing and a turn starting.
     • Overlaps are frequent. They happen when simultaaneous speech occurs etc when one turn starts and another ends. They are a sign of one speaker being keen to begin or slightly anticipating the end of a turn.
       • Interruptions happen when a turn shifts from one speaker to another before the first speaker has finished their utterance.
         • Kenneth Wardhaugh - How conversation works
           • says there is several reasons for interruptions - to seek clarification, to correct and to challenge
   • Deborah Tannen
     • Identified two different styles of turn taking - high involvement style and high considerateness style.
       • High-involvement style: this involves a lot of simultaneous speech in the form of interruptions and overlaps. = a high level of positive engagement and enthusiasm.
       • High-considerateness style: Speakers are allowed to finish fully and any simultaneous speech creates apologies and withdrawal. = Respect for the speaker

6. Effect of CHANNEL on textual variation

   • Channel is how it exists so sounds, symbols and letters
   • Prosodics: Stress, Pace, Volume and Intonation
     • Not what you say but how you say it.

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