Unit 5 Study Questions

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Outline the major events of the three phases of prenatal development. (pp. 491-492) (1) The Germinal stage (conception to 2nd week) - begins with the formation of the zygote (one-celled organism formed by sperm and egg). In 36 hours, it becomes a mass of multiplying cells; the placenta (structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus, and bodily waste to pass to the mother) is formed. (2) The Embryonic stage (2 weeks to end of 2nd month) - Most of the vital organs (heart, brain, spine) and bodily systems begin to form in the Embryo. (3) The Fetal stage (2nd month to birth) - Capable of movement with partially developed skeletal structure, and brings rapid growth as physiological systems mature. Sexual characteristics begin to develop at 3 months.

Summarize the impact of environmental factors, including maternal health care, on prenatal development. (pp. 493-495) Teratogens are any external agents, such as drugs or viruses, that can harm an embryo or fetus.Fetal and infant well-being is compromised through the use of drugs, such as tobacco, alcohol, prescription and recreational drugs. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome are a few examples of conditions that arise from use of drugs during pregnancy, as the majority of drugs pass through the placenta to the fetus. The placenta can filter some diseases, but many illnesses, such as rubella, syphilis, smallpox, mumps, and even severe flu can be harmful to the fetus. Genetal herpes and AIDS are also particularly dangerous to babies during birth. Environmental Toxins such as air pollution and various chemicals can be detrimental to infants development.

Describe the general trends and cultural variations in motor development. (pp. 496-497) The demands of the environment the children are raised in can effect when infants develop motor skills. If learning to walk sooner is required, then they will be trained to walk sooner, where as if they need to be near their mothers for a longer period, they will develop later. In modern societies, children are compared to Developmental Norms (the median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities) to track the progress one's own child is making.

Summarize the findings of Thomas and Chess’s longitudinal study of infant temperament. (pp. 497-500) Thomas and Chess found that 40% were easy children (happy, regular schedule and not usually upset), 15% were slow-to-warm-up children (less cheery, less regular in schedule) and 10% were difficult children (glum, erratic in sleeping and eating, resistant to change and irritable). Temperament is established at around 2-3 months old, and is an indicator of temperament at age 10.

Summarize the research on infant-caregiver attachment, including cultural variations. (pp. 500-503) Mary Ainsworth created the Strange Situation Procedure, in which infants are exposed to a series of eight separation and reunion episodes to assess the quality of attachment. (1) Secure attachment (attachment figure is sufficiently near, attentive, responsive and approving) (security, love, confident) is where a child tends to be playful, less inhibited, exploration-oriented and sociable. (2) Anxious-Ambivalent attachment (attachment figure is not neat, attentive, etc) (fear/anxiety)is where a child tends to engage in visual checking; signalling and/or moving to re-establish contact, calling, pleading and/or clinging. (3) Avoidant attachment (attachment figure not responsive, etc) (defensiveness) is where a child tends to maintain proximity while avoiding close contact. Attachment styles are predictive of behaviour in adults. Most children grow up with a secure attachment style, while countries vary of amounts of anxious-ambivalent and avoidant attachment styles.

Outline Erikson’s stages of childhood personality development, and critique his theory. (pp. 503-505) Erikson's Stage Theory is divided into 8 stages: (1) Trust vs Mistrust - first year - Is my world predictable and supportive?, (2) Autonomy vs Shame - second and third years - Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?, (3) Initiative vs Guilt - fourth through sixth years - Am I good or bad?, (4) Industry vs Inferiority - age 6 through puberty - Am I competent or am I worthless?, (5) Identity vs Confusion - adolescence - Who am I and where am I going?, (6) Intimacy vs Isolation - early adulthood - Shall I share my life with another or live alone? (7) Generativity vs Self-absorption - middle adulthood - Will I produce something of real value?, and (8) Integrity vs Despair - late adulthood - Have I lived a full life?. How we deal with each of these psychosocial crises shapes our personality. While Erikson's theory accounts for both continuity and transition in personality development, the theory has depended largely on illustrative case studies, which are open to various interpretations. It also doesn't explain individual differences in personality development, or at times when people can be at multiple stages at once.

Comment: According to Erikson’s stage scheme,

personality development largely consists of children’s interactions with

their environment and their attempts to meet or master psychosocial

crises. Thus, it would seem that personality development is probably

exclusively an environmental change. However, temperament in early

childhood seems to be correlated with later temperament, which is an

aspect of personality.

Outline Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, and critique his theory. (pp. 505-509) Cognitive development refers to the transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving; this is the basis for Piaget's Stage Theory, (1) Sensorimotor Period - birth to age 2 - Infants develop the ability to coordenate their sensory input with their motor actions. This stage has infants lacking Object Permanence (develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible). (2) Preoperational Period - age 2 to age 7 - gradually improve in uses of mental images, but short comings are prevalent, such as lacking understanding of Conservation (Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain consistent inspite of changes in their shape or appearance). They also have the following aspects: Centration (the tendency to focus on just one aspect of a problem, neglecting other important aspects), Irreversibility (the inability to envision reversing an action), Egocentrism (thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another persons viewpoint) and Animisn (the belief that all things are living like one's self). (3) Concrete Operation Period (age 7 to age 11) - Children can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events. Irreversibility and Centration no longer apply, and these children gradually master conservation. They can solve hierarchical classification and other types of problems. (4) Formal Operational Period - age 11 onward - Children begin to apply operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects. Children become more systematic in problem-solving efforts. As with all stage theories, it's unable to explain deviations from the norm, as well as subjects who experience multiple stages simultaneously, and that the timetable in which children go through stages differ by culture, meaning stage theories don't take in enough environmental factors and rely too heavily on maturation.

Comment: Piaget (1973), originally trained as a

biologist and philosopher, was mainly interested in the biological

influences regarding “how we come to know” (as cited in Singer &

Revenson1,

1997, p. 13). He believed human beings differed from other animals

because of the ability to do “abstract symbolic reasoning” (as cited in

Huitt & Hummel2,

2003, para. 1). He noticed that young children answered questions

considerably differently than older children because they thought

differently.

Summarize the debate about whether some cognitive abilities are

innate. What research methods are used to investigate the cognitive

abilities of young children? (pp. 511-512) Habituation is a gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly. Dishabituation occurs if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of a habituated response. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used to discover that infants understand basic properties of objects and some of the rules that govern them, such as an objects boundaries, that objects move in continuous paths, one solid cannot pass through another, an object cannot pass through a hole smaller than the object, and that objects roll down hills (gravity). As well, infants can demonstrate understanding of basic math problems (1+1=2) through the use of certain procedures.

Describe the milestones in the development of children’s understanding of mental states. (pp. 512-514) The biggest milestone in a child's understanding of mental states is acquiring a "theory of mind", in that a child would learn that other people have thoughts and feelings, as well as predicting when others would have false beliefs. Theory of minds usually develops at around age 4. Around age 2, the first mental states they understand are desires and emotions. At age 3, children are talking about others' beliefs and thoughts, as well as their own desires. At age 4, children consistently make the connection between mental states and behaviour, and how people's beliefs, thoughts, and desires motivate and direct their behaviour.

Outline Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, and critique his theory. (pp. 514-515) Preconventional level - stage 1: punishment orientation - right and wrong are determined by what is punished. - Stage 2: Naive reward orientation - right and wrong are determined by what is rewarded. Conventional level - stage 3: goodboy/girl orientation - right and wrong are determined by close others' approval or disapproval. - stage4: authority orientation - right and wrong are determined by society's rules and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly. Postconventional level - stage 5: social contract orientation - right and wrong are determined by society's rules, which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute. - stage 6: individual principles and conscience orientation - right and wrong are determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice. The criticisms of this stage theory reflects that of all others, in that nothing is explained for mixing stages. Kohlberg's theory may not reflect moral convictions of differing cultures, as this theory reflects liberal, individualistic ideology characterized by western nations. As well, some critics say that this theory only reflects the moral convictions of white males, as women have an equally moral standing in stage 3 as a man would in stage 4.

Comment: Kohlberg modified and expanded on Piaget’s work. While Piaget considered a two-stage process, Kohlberg (1973)3

outlined six stages of moral reasoning, which included three different

levels. Unlike Piaget, Kohlberg believed that moral development was a

life-long, continuous process.

Describe the major events of puberty. (pp. 516-518) Pubescence is the two-year span preceding puberty during which teh changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place, such as the secondary sex characteristics (physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but are not essential for reproduction). Puberty is the stage during which marks the beginning of adolescence, with the development of primary sex characteristics (the structures necessary for reproduction). In females, puberty starts with the Menarche (first occurrence of menstruation).

Based on the research evidence on adolescent suicide, would you conclude that adolescence is a time of turmoil? (pp. 519-520) Being that adolescent teenagers are in a transitional period from childhood to adulthood, as well as hormonal changes, the prefrontal cortex not being fully developed, and the prevalence of at least one depressive episodes, I would say teens have a harder time dealing with internal turmoil. However, the fact that suicide rates are still much lower than in other age groups would have me conclude that the turmoil wouldn't be based on suicide rates alone.

Using research evidence on adolescent moods, behaviours, and

conflicts, would you reach the same conclusion about adolescence being a

time of turmoil for adolescents among Canada’s First Nations peoples?

(pp. 521-522) First nations youth have an even harder time as a whole, with the potential of being victims of racism, having first nations youth suicide rates being the highest in the world, and potentially being in a community where the suicide rate is 800 times the national average is a cause for concern. The first nations communities that have a strong sense of cultural identity had much lower suicide rates where cultural identity of the community was in disarray.

Explain why the struggle for a sense of identity is particularly

intense during adolescence. Discuss common patterns of identity

formation (identity statuses). (pp. 523-524) The struggle for Identity formation is especially intense during adolescence, as youth start their transition to adulthood. The presence or absence of a sense of commitment (to life goals and values) and a sense of crisis (active questioning and exploration) can combine to produce four different Identity Statuses. Identity diffusion is a state of rudderless apathy, with no commitment to an ideology. Identity foreclosure is a premature commitment to visions, values, and roles-typically those prescribed by one's parents (associated with conformity and not being open to new experiences). Identity moratorium involves delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers. Identity achievement involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities (associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation, and capacity for intimacy).

Summarize the evidence regarding the stability of personality and the

prevalence of the midlife crisis. Outline Erikson’s three stages of

adulthood. (p. 525) There is a clash of consensus as to whether personality is consistent over time. So while peoples relative standing doesn't change over time (through raw scores converted to percentile scores), examining individual participants' raw scores indicates change over time, with increases agreeableness and consciousness, and decreases in extraversion, neuroticism and openness to experience. Erikson's three adult stages are the following: (6) Intimacy vs Isolation - early adulthood - Shall I share my life

with another or live alone? (7) Generativity vs Self-absorption - middle

adulthood - Will I produce something of real value?, and (8) Integrity

vs Despair - late adulthood - Have I lived a full life?

Describe the typical transitions in family relations during the adult years. (pp. 525-528) The family life cycle is a sequence of stages that families tend to progress through. While the trend was initially shown as people who cohabitated prior to marriage has more divorces, since the 1990's, that trend started to reverse itself; a major source of conflict is that while there is an increase of women going out to the work force, the husbands don't do as much of the housework, relying on previous marital roles. Most people say having children is a very positive experience, but decades of research shows that parents exhibit lower marital satisfaction than comparable non-parents, mothers of infants report the steepest marital satisfaction decline, and the more children couples have, the lower marital satisfaction tends to be (this changes depending on levels of commitment, affection, and attachment levels). Once these children leave home, couples have an increased level of marital satisfaction, despite popular belief (assuming that children don't move back in, which is now a common occurrence).

Describe the physical and cognitive changes associated with aging.

For each physical and cognitive change, describe how that change affects

everyday life. (pp. 528-531) Physiological changes include loss of vision (farsightedness and low-illumination sight), loss in hearing (specifically high frequencies), changes in appearance (such as greying and receding hair, as well as body fat composition) attributes to lower self esteem, and the experience of menopause for women (thought to be severe, but is only modest psychological distress). Neural changes exist as the onset of dementia (an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment), with Alzheimer's disease accounting for 70% of dementia cases. The onset of dementia has drastically negative effects on cognitive functioning, and quality of life for elders. Cognitive changes are evident in the fact that while crystallized intelligence remains stable, fluid intelligence declines. As well, only certain types of memory declines, and is not attributable to everyone. The concept of "use it or lose it" is supported with evidence, as cognitive training programs reduce the rate of cognitive decline.

Explain how Chapter 11 highlights the theme of the joint influence of heredity and environment. (p. 536) The effects of heredity and environment are vast, as they work interactively with each other, meaning the effects of one variable depends of the effects of another. A feedback loop exists between biological factors and environmental factors. All aspects of development are shaped jointly by heredity and experience.

Summarize the evidence regarding gender differences in behaviour. Discuss the significance of these differences. (pp. 537-541) Gender differences as been assessed in a variety of means, such as cognitive differences (females with verbal skills, males with mathematics and visual-spatial skills), Personality (females score higher in extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and neuroticism) and social behaviour (males more physically aggressive and more sexually active, women verbally aggressive and more sensitive to nonverbal cues), biological factors (prenatal androgen hormone secretion playing a factor in display of masculine traits), brain organization (thought that men are specialized in thinking, women can use both hemispheres better, but non-conclusive). Environmental factors exist through means of socialization, which is the acquisition of the norms and behaviours expected of people in a particular society, which is used to teach children of gender roles, which are expectations about what is appropriate behaviour for each sex. Socialization is mostly presented through family, school and the media, but is also presented through operant conditioning (learning through punishment and reward), observational learning (mimicking same-sex parent), and self socialization (learned through one's culture). Most of the gender differences are accurate when comparing the averages of groups, but as each person is unique, these findings don't necessarily apply to each individual.

Are fathers essential to children’s well-being? As Weiten and McCann

(2013) note in the Critical Thinking Application section, this question

is currently the subject of heated debate. What three critical thinking

skills could you use to evaluate the argument? (pp. 542-543) While fathers promote healthy development, there is nothing to say that is essential. In the critical thinking application, there are correlations between fatherlessness and various social woes, such as teen pregnancy, dropping out of high school, and becoming a juvenile delinquent (correlation does not equal causation). However, during the increase of fatherlessness, we've seen organized religion decline, mass media grow, sexual mores shift, etc. Meaning, there can be multiple causes for these societal woes. As well, alternative explanations are useful for assesing arguments, such as, being that father absence is seen in those with lower socioeconomic status, the negative effects of father absence is entangled with the detrimental effects of poverty. Finding contrary evidence is important, so when comparing children raised in the nuclear family v a family with two lesbian parents, and there are negligible differences between these two family structures. Looking for fallacies in arguments is extremely important.