Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
Cards in this deck (191)
- 1what will a child with a secure attachment show in the strange situation?secure base for exploration
child seeks caregiver when upset
prefers caregiver to stranger
don't always show separation anxiety
seeks contact on reunion
immediately comforted - 2what would a child with avoidant attachment show in the strange situation?unresponsive when parent present
not distressed on separation
react to stranger similarly to caregiver
avoidant on reunion
doesn't seek out caregiver
when picked up, they fail to cling - 3what would a child with a resistant attachment show in the strange situation?doesn't explore
clingy
distressed when separated
angry upon reunion
combines clinginess with angry resistant behaviour
cannot be comforted easily
simultaneously seeks and avoids contact - 4what would a child with disorganized/disorientated attachment show in the strange situation?greatest insecurity
confused, contradictory behaviours on reunion
dazed
odd frozen postures - 5Define Attachmentstrong affectionate tie between baby and special people in their lives that leads them to experience pleasure and joy when they interact with this, be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.
- 6what are the 4 stages of attachment?pre-attachment stage
development of attachment
'clear-cut' attachment
reciprocal relationship - 7What happans & when is the pre-attachment stage of attachment?0-6 weeks
infant doesn't mind being held by strangers
they recognise their mothers smell, voice & face
use crying, gazing & smiling to help them get into close contact with other humans
innate reflexes - 8What happans/when is the 'development of attachment' stage of development?6 weeks - 6-8 months
responds differently to different people
laughs/smiles more with mother
baby develops a sense of trust - the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signalled - 9What happans/When is the 'clear cut' stage in the stages of attachment?6-8 months - 18/24 months
infants show stranger anxiety & separation anxiety - toddlers also try hard to maintain primary care givers presence
clear attachment to caregiver
infant follows caregiver - secure base - 10What happans/When is the 'reciprocal' relationship stage in the stages of attachment?18/24 months on-wards
child reasons/negotiates with caregiver
separation anxiety declines language & representation enable toddler to understand factors that influence the parents coming & going & predict her return
object permanence develops - 11What factors does the consistancy of attachment depend on?social-economic security
life events
consistent environment - 12What age is attachment type relatively resilient?4-5 years
- 13How do Vygotsky & Piaget differ on the role of make-believe play?Vygostky : make believe play is another zone of proximal development supporting the development of new skills and abilities containing lots of private speech
a central process for development - 14How do Piaget and Vygostky differ on Private Speech?Piaget: language and thought are relatively unrelated, private speech does not serve any developmental purpose. declines as child becomes aware of others having different views/minds of their own
Vygostky: language and thought are integral to each other, our thoughts are internalized speech and therefore private speech is self guidance. acts a precursor to thought. - 15What is reciprocal learning?teacher and 2-4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text.
- 16Which four cognitive strategies are applied during reciprocal learning?summarizing
questioning
clarifying
predicting - 17Define Co-operative Learningsmall groups of classmates work together toward common goals
- 18Define Scaffoldingcontext provided by the more knowledgeable person to help the child develop cognitive skills - fits current child's level of performance
- 19Define Guided Participationa more knowledgeable individual organises activities in ways that allows less knowledgeable people to learn without specifying the precise features of communication.
- 20Define Zone Of Proximal Developmenta range of tasks more difficult for the child alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers
- 21Define Intersubjectivitytwo participants begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding, create common ground for communication as each partner adjusts to the others perspective and focuses on the same thing at the same time.
- 22What is correlational research?aims to describe the relationship between one aspect of children's development and another however a correlation does not equal a cause
correlational research is expressed through a correlation coefficient - 23What is experimental research?aims to show a casual relationship between one variable (IV) and another (DV)
- 24What is a longitudinal study?measures behaviour in the same subject at different ages
- 25Advantages of longitudinal studies?good to see cause or effect
provides estimates of changes/stability of behaviour
estimates impact of early experiences later on - 26Disadvantgaes with longitudinal studies?sampling problems - less busy parents are usually the ones to complete the study
can be biased though social-economic status
practise effects - 27Define Critical Periodthe limited time during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviour
- 28What are systematic observations?exploring a specific behaviour of interest, relating it to other behaviours and these only explore specific behaviour
eg strange situation - 29What is a passive child?development is not driven by the child but mainly by the environment (external)
- 30What is an active child?internal psychological structures drive development; children actively explore the world and influence their own learning.
- 31What are the 5 periods of development and their time intervals?prenatal : conception - birth
infancy and toddler hood : 0-2 years
early childhood : 2-6 years
middle childhood : 6-11 years
Adolescence : 11-18 years - 32Define Developmentchange in observable behaviour learned through experience with the environment
- 33What are the empirical reasons for studying children?period of rapid change
long term influences of events
understanding origins of development of complex adult processes - 34What are the philosophical reasons for studying children?what does it mean to be human?
how can we get something from nothing? - 35What are the applied reasons for studying children?real world applications of child rearing
targets for children's academic development - 36Define normative developmentall children are supposed to take a normal development path in relation to averages of all children
- 37Define individual differences in terms of developmenteach child's sequence of development is unique, there is a theme but there are many individual differences
- 38What are naturalistic observations?reflecting everyday behaviours by observing children in everyday settings
- 39What are structured observations?structured environment designed to gain a certain behaviour, al participants are provided with the same opportunity to display a particular behaviour
- 40What are descriptive observations?parents describe the development of the child
- 41Define stabability in terms of Stabaility vs. Changeheredity &/or early experiences shape a child's characteristic and this remains with them
- 42Define Change is terms of the Stabability vs. Change debatedevelopment had substantial plasticity through life and is open to change in response to influential experiences
- 43Define Nature in relation to the nature vs. nurture debatedevelopment driven by the maturation of ones hereditary endorsement.
- 44Define Nurture in relation to the nature vs. nurture debatedevelopment driven by physical and social environments and experiences, before and after birth.
- 45What is the Preferential Looking Paradigm?asks children to look at a picture of something, you are able to know if they understand by looking at the correct picture
- 46What does infant eye tracking do?tracks where the infant looks while watching a video or looking at a picture
- 47What is infant EEG/ERP?tests electronic signals in the brain ie when they hear different songs
- 48What is the conditioned head turn procedure?Where you condition a child to turn their head at a certain stimuli.
- 49What are the ethical issues in terms of investigating children? & how are these combatted?disclosure: police checks by criminal justice board
ethical approval: Ethics committees ensure that studies do not put participants welfare at risk
Informed consent: must be obtained from parents/guardians
Data Protection Act: participants details and test scores must be kept confidential, anonymous and secure - 50What are cross-sequential studies?combine longitudinal & cross-sectional designs
- 51What are microgenetic studies?Examine mastery of a task over a series of sessions over a short period of time in a longitudinal design.
- 52What are case studies?examines one or more behaviours in a single subject at some depth
- 53What are cross-culteral studies?examines behaviour under different cultural conditions
- 54What are the issues with cross-sequential studiescohort effects
cannot reveal development at individual level only at group level - 55What are cohort effects?different age group have different life experiences that may have a profound impact on their behaviour eg changing teaching methods.
- 56Define developmental psychologyunderstanding the changes in mind & behaviour that humans experience throughout the lifespan
- 57Define child developmentunderstanding human development from conception to adolescence
- 58What happans in the 'infancy and toddler hood' stage in periods of development?dramatic motor, cognitive and language development
- 59What happans in the 'early childhood' stage in periods of development?imagination, friendship, self-sufficiency
- 60What happans in the 'middle childhood' stage in periods of development?basic skills, general knowledge, responsibilty
- 61What happans in the 'adolescence' stage in periods of development?sexual development, abstract/idealistic thought, pursuit of autonomy and independence
- 62What is event sampling?observer records all instances of a particular behaviour during a specified time
- 63What is time sampling?researcher records whether certain behaviours occur during a sample of short intervals
- 64What is observer influence?effects if an observer on the behaviour studied
- 65What is observer bias?observers are aware of the purposes of the study they may record what they expect to see rather than what participants actually do
- 66Biringen (2000)emotional availability of caregiver is the most important element of secure attachment
- 67Van Den Boom100 Dutch low SES mothers
greater parental responsiveness lead to
higher academic achievement
better social skills
more compliant children - 68Domitovich & Biermanchildren who have had emotionally warm caregivers how better social adaption
- 69Steelman et alchildren who have emotionally warm caregivers show better social skills
- 70Simons, Robertson & DormsChildren with emotionally warm caregivers show better behaviour at school
- 71Radin (1971)children have higher academic attainment if they had emotionally warm caregivers
- 72Goldstein, Davis-Kean & EcclesChildren who have emotionally warm caregivers show lower levels of aggression and delinquency in adolescence
- 73Pettit, Bates and Dodgeemotionally warm caregivers are a protective factor against environmental factors ie poverty
- 74Barnes & Olsonopenness of communication is important in adolescence
- 75Diamond (2002)"the most important things are that children feel they are loved and that they are listened to"
- 76Kurdeck & Fire (1994)Consistency of rules have a significant effect on behaviour
- 77Prinzie et alharsh negative discipline correlates with behaviour problems and externalising behaviours in childhood
- 78Ginsberg & Bronsteinchildren of parents who reward/punish for good/poor grades have poorer overall grades than those who are not encouraged
- 79Schwartz"reinforcement has two effects. first.. predictably it gains control of an activity, increasing its frequency. Second.. when reinforcement is later withdrawn, people engage in the activity even less than they did before reinforcement was introduced"
- 80What are the 3 aspects of parenting & what do they mean?Acceptance: parents accept the child and don't put them down or discourage them
Involvement: the degree to which the parent is involved in the child's life
Autonomy granting: granting the child autonomy/independence appropriate to their age - 81What are the 4 parenting styles?Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved
- 82What do german infants show in terms of attachment?considerably more avoidant attachment than American babies do, German parents value independence & encourage their infants to be less clingy
- 83What do Japanese infants show in strange situation?rarely show avoidant attachment
because Japanese mothers spend much time in close physical contact with their babies so the strange situation induces great stress on these infants - 84What are the 4 important influences on attachment security?early availability of a consistent caregiver
quality of care giving
baby's characteristics
family context - 85What is sensitive caregiving?responding promptly, consistently & appropriately to infants & hold them tenderly & carefully
- 86What is interactional syndromy?separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies, it is best described as a sensitivity tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic appropriate fashion
- 87What does contructivist mean in Piagets theory?how the organism reacts to its environment to gain knowledge
- 88What is Domain-general, in relation to Piaget?applies to all domains/subsets eg in language letters and numbers are different domains
- 89What is a 'grand stage theory'?stage theory, grand = everything you do is because you are in this stage
- 90What is a schema?structured organisation of experience, framework of what to so in a situation
- 91What is accomodation? in terms of Piagets theoryalter your schema to fit your/the environment
- 92What is assimilation? in relation to Piagets theoryapply your schema to the newly encountered bit of the environment
- 93What are the 4 stages of development according to Piaget?sensorimotor stage
pre-operational stage
concrete operations
formal operations - 94What learning happens in the sensorimotor stage?learning through action
- 95What learning happens in the preoperational stage?learning through perception
- 96What learning happens in the concrete operations stage?mental operations based on stable knowledge
- 97What learning happens in the formal operations stage of Piagets theory?abstract, hypothetical -deductive
- 98What is a stage? in relation to Piagets theoryQualitative differences in thinking
invariant order of emergence - always go in the same order
concurrence across the stages in different domains ie development is domain general
universal - they are assumed to characterise children everywhere - 99What is the sensorimotor stage?0-24 months
thinking & reasoning are governed by interaction with the world
progressive growth & refinement of knowledgeable structures, increasingly refined and more detailed overtime - 100How did Piaget believe toddlers think?think with their hands, eyes, ears & other sensory equipment
they cannot yet carry out many mental activities - 101What is the circular reaction?involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity
the reaction is circular because as the infant tries to repeat the event again & again strengthening the schema - 102What are the 6 sensorimotor substages?reflective schemes
primary circular reactions
secondary circular reactions
co-ordination of secondary circular reactions
tertiary circular reactions
mental representations - 103What happens in the reflecive schemes substage of sensorimotor substage?birth - 1 month
newborn reflexes - 104What happens in the primary circular reactions substage of the sensorimotor stage?1-4 months
simple motor habits centred around the infants own body; limited anticipation of events - 105What happens in the secondary circular reactions stage of the sensorimotor stage?4-8 months
actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding; imitation of familiar worlds - 106What happens in the co-ordination of secondary circular reactions substage in the sensorimotor stage?8-12 months
goal directed behaviour, object permanence, improved anticipation of events, imitation of behaviour - 107What is object permanence?ability to find a hidden object in the first location in which it is hidden
- 108What happens in the tertiary circular reactions substage of the sensorimotor stage?12-18 months
explorations of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways
imitation of novel behaviours
accurate A-B search - 109What is an accurate A-B search?ability to search in several locations for a hidden object
- 110What happens in the mental representations sub stage of the sensorimotor stage?18 months - 2 years
internal depictions of objects and events as indicated by sudden solutions to problems
invisible displacement
make-believe play - 111What is invisible displacement?ability to find an object that has been moved while out of sight
- 112How does the A-B error work?when you hide an object at location A, allow the child to search for it & find it at A.
hide object at second location B, allow search & infant searches for object at original location
it is as if the act of reaching for it, makes it reappear, that's why they go back to the same place - 113How does Piaget explain the A-B error?infants have incomplete understanding of permanence of the object
the action-object relationship is bound to a particular location & reaching makes it reappear - 114How did Kellman & Spelke challenge Piagets theory?suggested children are born with object permanence
- 115How did Hood & Willatts challenge Piagets theory?children reach for objects in the dark - challenging object permanence
- 116What did Baillargeon find that challenges Piagets theory?children were more surprised by an impossible event therefore suggesting object permanence
- 117However, What are the criticisms of Baillargeon?not everyone can get her results
the effect may be perceptual, not conceptual ie the surprise within infants may be caused by perceptual processes rather than a high level of understanding of objects - 118What are other challenges to Piagets theory?- infants imitate facial expressions, at ages they wouldn't be able to according to Piaget
- 119So what is wrong with Piaget's conception of the infant?Piaget underestimated the initial knowledge state of the infant
too much emphasis on motor abilities
Piaget may not have got it right about mental representations, creating a problem where no problem exists - 120When is the preoperational period?2-7 years
- 121What happens in the preoperational stage in Piagets theory?children hold more than one mutually incompatible belief
pre-logical (not being logical)
infant is usually a solipsist & then moves into being an egocentrist
thinking and reasoning are to some extent successful & are performed by manipulation of symbols
equilibration takes place - 122What is a solipsist?inability to distinguish yourself from the universe
- 123What is an egocentrist?paying too much attention to their perspective rather than others perspective
- 124What is equlibiration?the back & forth movement between equilibrium & disequilibrium that produces more effective schemes
- 125Whats the difference between preoperational and concrete operationsoperations are reversible mental transformations
operations are not subject to interference from perception
preoperational children have not attained to ability to perform these reversible transformations - 126What is reversibility?the ability to go through a series of steps in a problem & then mentally reverse directions, returning to the start point
- 127What is the significance of errors in the preoperational period?errors are important to our understanding of the preoperational child, they reveal the sense in which the child is not capable of concrete operations
- 128What is an exam of class inclusion?group of wooden beads, some light and some dark coloured, preoperational child will say there are more light beads than wooden beads
- 129how does the 'focus on states, not transformations' apply to preoperational children?these children tend to focus on two end results rather than the transformation between these two results
- 130How does the 3 mountain problem relate to egocentrism?children asked what the doll can see who is looking at the three mountains from a different angle,
preoperational children usually pick the picture that they can see themselves - 131What is the conservation experiment in preoperational children?two glasses of equal amounts of water, then one glass is poured into a tall thin glass keeping same amount of water
preoperational children would say the taller glass has more water in
concrete operational children will say they were both the same - 132What is the theory behind conservation in preoperational children?these children fail to distinguish between relevant & irrelevant transformations
children appear to lack knowledge of invariance - 133What is a lack of invarience?lack the knowledge that some things don't change under certain conditions
- 134What is the rod lengths experiment and what does it demonstrate?used colour rods to show A is longer than B, B is longer than C, asked which is longer A or C?
preoperational children perform badly in this task
this shows transitive inferences - 135What are the challenges to Piagets account?memory - many of Piagets experiments rely on the child's memory so therefore this could affect results
misunderstanding could play a part
language difficulty could be the difference
subtle changes affect performance - 136What is the problem with memory on Piagets theory?children just couldn't recall all the knowledge they needed at the time, you could train children so they don't forget the information they need
- 137What is the misunderstanding accounts challenge to Piagets theory?context matters, you need to show the child why they are being asked again
- 138How did Rose & Blank challenge Piagets theory?argued that asking the same question twice is not usual pragmatics & the child may ask 'was i wrong first time?'
the incorrect response is primed by interaction of perceptual context & linguistic input - 139What did McGarrigle & Donaldson's Naughty Teddy study do & show?contrasted 'accidental' with 'intentional' transformations
intentional - 34% correct
accidental - 72% correct
distraction is caused by teddy? - 140What did Moore & Frye find challenging Piaget?found that irrelevant transformation caused a higher percentage of correct answers on the understanding of conservation compared to the experiments intention therefore teddys experiment is much better when accidental
- 141How did Donaldson challenge Piaget?questioned Piaget through whether his experiments where due to a failing of reason or a failing of understanding the task
- 142What did McGarrie suggest as an alternative to Piagets experiments?an alternative with sleeping cows and teddy steps which would be logical equivalent to the beads class inclusion
these are not subject to the distraction criticism - 143What is the controversial 'distraction story'?Piaget says conservation failure is a breakdown in logic
however Davidson says conservation failure is really a pragmatic failure
Moore & Frye says Teddy made performance worse for a relevant transformation
Donaldson then suggested that distraction story does not explain other findings - 144What did Siegler find?there were 3 conditions
feedback only
explain their reasoning and given feedback
feedback then asked 'how do you think/know that?'
found that people who explained reasoning got a much higher percentage right whereas the control and explaining reasoning alone were very simular - 145Whats wrong with Piagets conservation task?nothing necessarily - do it Piagets way, you get Piagets results
however interpretations are important there are usually several theoretical possibilities underlying any given observation - 146What is cognition in terms of developmental psychology?the inner processes & products of the mind that lead to "knowing", it includes all mental activity - attending, remembering, symbolizing, categorizing, planning, reasoning, problem solving, creating & fantasizing
- 147What are schemas?specific psychological structures - organised ways of making sense of experience - change with age
- 148What are mental representations?internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate - this makes the transition from the sensorimotor approach to a cognitive approach
our most powerful mental representations are images - 149What does adaption consist of?building schemas through direct interaction with the environment
consists of assimilation & accommodation - 150What is assimilation in adaptation?we use our current schemas to interpret the external world
- 151What is accommodation in adaption?we create new schemas or adjust old ones after noticing that out current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely
- 152What is the cognitive equilibrium?when children are not changing much, they assimilate more than they accommodate
during rapid times of change, they accommodate more and so are in a state of disequilibrium - 153What happens everytime equilibration occurs and what is it?back and forth movement between equilibrium & disequilibrium is equilibration
more effective schemas are produced - 154How do schemas change through organisation?a process that occurs internally, apart from direct contact with the environment.
once children form new schemas, they rearrange them, linking them to other schemas to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system - 155When do schemas truely reach equilibrium?when they become part of a broad network of structures that can be jointly applied to the surrounding world
- 156What are intentional or goal directed behaviours?coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems
- 157What is object permanence?the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
- 158When does mental representation occur?occurs in substage 6 - 18-24 months
- 159how is mental representation shown?arrive at solutions to problems suddenly rather than through trial & error, apparently experimenting with actions inside their head allowing infants to solve objects permanence problems involving invisible displacement
- 160What is deferred imitation?the ability to remember & copy the behaviour of models who are not present, making make-believe play possible where the child acts out everyday & imaginary activities
- 161What is the violation of expectation model?used to find out if babies can find hidden objects - show babies unexpected and expected event
heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests the infant is surprised by the deviation from physical activity and therefore is aware of the physical world - 162What are the limitations of violation of expectation model?researchers believe it shows limited non-conscious awareness of physical events
- 163What is parallel play?alongside each other but not together
- 164What is associative play?children will comment on others play/toys
- 165What is co-operative play?cooperating with one another - playing together - with the other person
- 166What are the 7 functions of friendship according to Asher & Parker?1.fostering development of social competence
2.source of ego support
3.providing emotional security in novel/threatening situations
4. source of intimacy and affection
5.providing guidance & assistance
6. providing source of reliable alliance - someone to stick up for you
7. providing companionship & stimulation - 167How are girl friendships characterised?relationships typically more emotional
self disclosure more common
show higher levels of relational aggression
close friendships and negative effects eg corumination - 168How are boys friendships characterised?gather more often for activities
discuss achievements or conflicts
show higher levels of physical aggression & rough&tumble play
quality of friendships related to gender identity - 169What is peer acceptance?the extent to which children are liked & accepted by their peers
- 170what must be remembered when considering adoption?it is a multifaceted issue
includes attachment, comparative cultural issues & individual identity - 171Define adoption?a legal procedure in the UK which transfers all parental responsibility from the birth parents to new parents
there can still be social ties with family but all legal ties are lost - 172how does psychology describe adoption?not being reared by your biological parents
so can include fostering & other arrangements - 173What is the historical background to adoption?informal procedure in many cultures & in UK up to 100 years ago
adoption is now done through the care system - 174What are the potential background issues to adoption?foetal alcohol syndrome
drug withdrawal
unmet needs ie nutrition
attachment
inappropriate experience
learning disability
psychopathology - 175What are the potential reasons for someone to adopt?sub-fertility (can't conceive)
sexuality
altruism
genetic disorder - 176What do on average children in adopted families have?lower cognitive functioning
higher incidence of emotional problems - 177What did Van Ijzendoorn, Juffer & Poelhuis find in their meta-analysis of 18,000 children?pre-adoptive factors were most risky ie transition risk
post-adoptive factors were mostly protective
lags in adoptive childrens school performance but they caught up in IQ - 178What did Rutter find in Romanian Orphanages?adopted soon after birth to 3 1/2 years
they showed cognitive deficits, inattention/hyperactivity, social problems, low head circumference = low brain development - 179What did Beckett et al find in following up Rutters study?negative effect of deprivation on cognition but stable by 6 years
age of adoption had impact - those adopted after 6 months cause considerable less IQ however if adopted before 6 months, IQ similar to control - 180What did Hodges & Tizzard find about attachment disruption?studied nursery care with many caregivers encouraged not to make bonds or attachments with children
comparisons were made between adopted children and those returned to biological parents - 181What did Hodges & Tizard find at 2 years?attachment to lots of different adults, fearful of strangers
then adopted or restored - 182What did Hodges & Tizard find at 4 years?adopted children had formed attachment to adoptive parents but were over friendly with strangers
- 183What did Hodges & Tizard find at 8 years?still over-friendly with strangers & quarrelsome with peers
- 184What did Hodges & Tizard find at adolescence?adopted & restored children were less likely to describe themselves having one 'special friend' compared to control
- 185How id disorganised attachment associated with parenting?associated with frightening parenting & barely associated with maternal sensitivity
often results in children going into care - 186How does stress relate to attachment disruption?early stress can cause differences in stress reactivity & cortisol regulation eg anger, learning problems, physical growth dysregulated
cortisol dysregualtion can be reversed - 187What did Scarr, Weinberg et al find in terms of heritability & intelligence?correlations between heritability & intelligence with identical twins reared together having the strongest average correlation
- 188What did Plomins et al find in relation to IQ?tested IQ of children who were adopted, their biological parents, their adoptive parents, matched parent controls and matched children controls
biological parents had the strongest correlation with child's intelligence compared to adoptive parents - 189What did Petril & Deater-Deckard find using within family adoption designs?correlations between mothers & children, same mum, two siblings, biological children showed stronger correlations compared to adoptive children
- 190What does gender aschematic mean?children identify themselves as an individual
- 191What does gender schematic mean?children who identify first as their gender only plays with something in accordance to gender
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- Flashcards on Developmental Psychology , created by Martha Sainsbury on 30/04/2015.
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- Martha Sainsbury · Apr 2015
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- Feb 19, 2016
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