Lecture 7 - Adolesence

Lecture 7 - Adolesence

1. Intro

   • Period from puberty to adulthood. Transition to assuming an adult social role. Period of major physical, cognitive and social change.

2. Historical Views

   • Hall 1904: Adolescence as a time of “storm and stress”. Three aspects: conflict with parents, mood disruptions and risky behaviour Broadly these hold true, although more recent research emphasises: Individual differences (“storm and stress” is more likely in adolescence than at other ages, but not all adolescents experience it), Cross-cultural differences (“storm and stress” appears lower in traditional, non-Western cultures)
     • G. S. Hall's (1904) view that adolescence is a period of heightened "storm and stress". 3 key aspects of this view: conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and risk behavior. In all 3 areas, evidence supports a modified storm-and-stress view that takes into account individual differences and cultural variations. Not all adolescents experience storm and stress, but storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages. Adolescent storm and stress tends to be lower in traditional cultures than in the West but may increase as globalization in- creases individualism. Similar issues apply to minority cultures in American society.
   • Erikson 1968: Puberty as period of identity crisis. Thought adolescence included: physical growth, sexual maturation, integrating our ideas of ourselves and about what others think of us. A time when we form our self-image. The task is to “resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity”
     • Erik Erikson discusses psychosocial stages. His ideas were greatly influenced by Freud, going along with Freud’s (1923) theory regarding the structure and topography of personality. However, whereas Freud was an id psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the id and the superego. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future
       • Adolescence - where we learn the roles we occupy as adults. During this stage we will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society can lead to role confusion. This involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles. Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and feeling of unhappiness.
   • Marcia 1966: Adolescent as “identity crisis”. Better understood as the extent to which one has both explored and committed to an identity - e.g. in politics, occupation, religion, intimate relationships, friendships, gender roles. Crisis leads to commitment to one of the alternatives
     • Refined and extended Eriksons model. Marcia posited that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution or identity confusion, but rather the degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains. Argues that two distinct parts form an adolescents identity: crisis and commitment. Defines crisis as a time when old values are being reexamined. End outcome of crisis leads t commitment made to certain role.

3. Increased psychological problems in adolescence

   • Isle of Wight Study, 2300 children aged 14-15. Rutter et al 1976 - showed increase in schizophrenia, depression in adolescence which can be exacerbated by environmental factors, e.g. cannabis use. Also increased emotional distance from parents (Steinberg 1988) and increased risk-taking (Arnett & Balle-Jensen, 1993). Can we explain “storm and stress”, and vulnerability to psychological problems, from a contemporary / experimental perspective?
     • Steinberg 1988 - Previous research has indicated that pubertal maturation, independent of age, is associated with increased distance in parent–child relationship, but the cross-sectional nature of these studies leaves open questions concerning the direction of effects. Using longitudinal data, this study examines the reciprocal relation between parent–child distance and pubertal maturation in a sample of 157 male and female firstborn adolescents and parents. Twice over a 1-year period, independent raters assessed each youngster's pubertal status, and parents and adolescents independently completed questionnaire measures of autonomy, conflict, and closeness in parent–child relationship. Regression analyses indicate that puberty increases adolescent autonomy and parent–child conflict and diminishes parent–child closeness. Analyses also indicate that parent–child distance may, in turn, accelerate pubertal maturation among girls.
     • Arnett and Balle-Jensen 1993 - Risk behavior was investigated among 1,053 Danish adolescents aged 12-20. Driving a car while intoxicated was rare even among the oldest adolescents, but riding a bicycle while intoxicated was reported by the majority of adolescents aged 14-20. Driving a car at high speeds was widespread among the oldest adolescents (aged 18-20), but still lower than rates reported for same-age American adolescents. Rates of sex without contraception were higher than expected, in spite of early and extensive sex education, while rates of illegal drug use other than marijuana were extremely low.

4. Physical and hormonal changes

   • Reproductive and sexual development - genitalia developing, pubic hair etc.
   • Stature (height)
   • Hormons. Gradual increases in LHRH amount and frequency of release before and during puberty --> increased LHRH in hypothalamus which controls activity of pituitary gland --> which stimulates adrenal cortex and gonads --> which produce sex hormones (androgen, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone) ----> development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics (Terasawa and Fernandez 2001).

5. Brain development

   • Review: grey matter = cell bodies and synapses; White matter = myelinated axons (connections between neurons); rearrangement of axons (synaptic connections) = within brain areas or across brain areas, change connectivity between neurons and so alter brain function
   • 1. Synaptic pruning = towards adult levels – later in prefrontal cortex than in visual or auditory cortex
   • 2. White matter increases throughout adolescence: continuing myelination?
   • 3. Gray matter changes – different in different brain regions. Ages of peaks correspond to puberty onset, suggesting possible interactions between puberty hormones and grey matter development.

6. Cognitive development

   • Risk taking
     • Adolescents take more risks than children or adults do - statistics on car crashes, binge drinking, contraceptive use, crime, and results of surveys (e.g. Resnick et al, 1997)
       • Two promising avenues for explaining this risky behaviour - Cognitive factors: Given what we know about adolescents’ immaturity in executive function (incl decision making and inibition). Social factors: Given the decrease in parental supervision, together with forming new kinds of relationships with own peers. These are not mutually exclusive – they could both be involved, and they could interact.
       • Cognitive processes relevant to risk taking and decision making include: Judging how risky an activity is, in general (e.g. drink driving), Judging own vulnerability to it, Judging seriousness of consequences (e.g. if crash, or if caught). Studies have asked: are adolescents deficient in these judgements? Reyna and Farley 2006 - % choosing more risk option in lab task declines with age, and a follow up study shows it continues to decline in adults (Levin and Hart 2003). Crone and van der Molen (2004) - gambling tasks - learning to select better option improves with age. Adolescent better than children.
       • Assessing the likely consequences of real-life risky behaviours. Questionnaire with different scenarios, Beyth-Marom et al, 1993. Adolescents (n=199) vs adults (n=199). Similar response patterns for adolescents and adults – do not differ in their beliefs about what might happen. Do those adolescents who engage in risky behaviours underestimate the risks? Reyna & Farley (2006) - In one study, adolescents who were smokers or who engaged in unprotected sex --> estimated their risk of lung cancer or sexually transmitted disease as significantly higher than others did (Johnson, McCaul & Klein, 2002). Other studies: “optimistic bias” no more prevalent in adolescents than adults – on the contrary, adolescents perceive themselves are more vulnerable. So adolescents do not under-estimate the risks BUT – adolescents’ risky decisions may still be rational: Rational decision making is a trade-off between risks and benefits. Perceived benefits of risky behaviour may be high for adolescent. Worth it
       • It is not that adolescents fail to perceive how risky a course of action is – they perceive how risky it is but do it anyway. Explains failures of attempts to educate adolescents about risks of drugs, alcohol, tobacco? Steinberg, Ann N Y Acad Sci (2004); Steinberg, Curr Dir Psych Sci (2007)- If adolescents already know the risks, perhaps we should instead focus on the benefits (persuade them that the benefits are not as great as they think?)
         • Steinberg 2004 - The present analysis suggests that the greater propensity of adolescents to take risks is not due to age differences in risk perception or appraisal, but to age differences in psychosocial factors that influence self-regulation. It is argued that adolescence is a period of heightened vulnerability to risk taking because of a disjunction between novelty and sensation seeking (both of which increase dramatically at puberty) and the development of self-regulatory competence (which does not fully mature until early adulthood). Interventions should begin from the premise that adolescents are inherently more likely than adults to take risks, and should focus on reducing the harm associated with risk-taking behavior.
       • Risk taking
       • Resnick et al 1997 - The main threats to adolescents' health are the risk behaviors they choose. Identify risk and protective factors at the family, school, and individual as they relate to 4 domains of adolescent: emotional health, violence, substance use, and sexuality. Eight areas were assessed. Independent variables included measures of family context, school context, and individual characteristics. Parent-family connectedness and perceived school connectedness were protective against every health risk behavior measure except history of pregnancy. Conversely, ease of access to guns at home was associated with suicidality and violence. Family and school contexts as well as individual characteristics are associated with health and risky behaviors in adolescents. The results should assist health and social service providers, educators, and others in taking the first steps to diminish risk factors and enhance protective factors for our young people.
   • Executive Function
     • Most studies show steady improvements in executive function through adolescent years. Paus, TiCS (2005)
     • McGivern et al, Brain & Cognition (2002) Match-to-sample task: answer as quickly as possible (yes/no) whether each stimulus is the same as the previous one (emotional words or faces). Temporary decrease in performance at onset of puberty (shown in more detail in a separate analysis). Note different ages for reaction time increase for male (dotted line) and female (solid line) - males earlier.Authors intepret as inefficiency related to a wave of synaptic proliferation in the frontal lobes at puberty onset (subsequently pruned)

7. Cognitive and social development

   • Risk taking
     • The need to consider psychosocial factors as well as cognitive. Steinberg (2004,2007) (in line with the studies we have just reviewed): adolescents' inclination to engage in risky behaviour does not appear to be due to irrationality, delusions of invulnerability, or ignorance. But risk taking in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning and psychosocial factors. Logical reasoning quite mature by 15 years; in contrast, psychosocial capacities that moderate risk taking (impulse control, emotion regulation, delay of gratification, resistance to peer influence) continue to mature well into adulthood -- It’s psychosocial maturity, not cognitive abilities, that need to develop
       • Parts of Steinerg's argument: Frontal areas (e.g. PFC) are involved not only in cognitive / executive function, but also emotional regulation. Brain areas mediating emotional experience change more rapidly than those mediating cognitive regulation: Monk et al., (2003). Remodelling of dopaminergic systems at puberty lead to increased reward-seeking (Steinberg, 2008). These neural changes may contribute to greater self-focus in adolescence, greater risk-taking, etc.
     • Influence of peers - Gardner and Steinberg 2004 - during playing a video driving game, when playing alone adults, young adults and adolescents had the same crashes, when playing w friends adolescents had way more, and young adults a few more.

8. Physical and social interactions

   • Three example kinds of interaction: 1. joint effects of cognitive and physical development on behaviour; 2. effects of physical development on cognitive development; 3. effects of a single hormone on both physical and cognitive development
   • Early maturing girls may initially feel awkward. Early maturing boys tend to be more confident and popular. Magnusson, 1985- Longitudinal study of 466 girls in Sweden. Early maturing girls: 1. Show greater drunkenness; drug-taking; law-breaking. But, only if they associate with older peer group & a transient effect - gone by mid-20's. 2. Drop out of school earlier; sexual activity and marriage earlier; more children at age 26; less likely to be in tertiary education (2% cf 15% late maturers).
   • WILLIAMS & DUNLOP 1999 UK study of 99 boys aged 14 years. Found delinquency to be higher in boys with ‘off-time’ puberty – early or late.
   • GRABER et al., 2004 Over 1,500 US participants followed up to age 24 – early maturing females at risk of antisocial behaviours, but late maturing males at more risk of deviant behaviours and substance abuse.
   • LYNNE et al., 2007 1366 US participants at 6th, 7th and 8th grades – irrespective of gender, or ethnicity (African American, Latino), early maturers higher on aggression and delinquency; this was fully mediated by association with delinquent peers in 6th grade.
   • Moffit, 1993, Maturity gap theory. These effects may be due to the process of closing the gap between physical and social maturity. They will only happen if the desire is there to close that gap, and if there are available peer groups to do so. Adolescence-limited antisocial behavior is motivated by the gap between biological maturity and social maturity